Settling the Ozarks

Settling the Ozarks

Online Exhibit

EMIGRATION.
Near 200 emigrants came up [to Little Rock via the Arkansas River] during the past week, in the steam-boats Industry and Waverly, and we understand several boats are on the river, filled with movers. . . . the mass of the movers are bound for Washington and Crawford counties, and the county acquired from the Cherokees, by the late Treaty. . . . [T]he influx of settlers from Alabama, Tennessee, Mississippi, and other states east of the Mississippi river, and from Missouri, on the north, appears to be daily increasing. That country appears to have acquired much fame abroad . . . For fertility of soil, salubrity of climate, and fine, healthy situations, it is said not to be exceeded by any country. Some of the settlements are already quite dense, and present appearances justify the belief that it will, in a very short period, become the most populous section of our Territory.
Arkansas Gazette, February 2, 1830

A large tract of land including what is now Northwest Arkansas was for a time the hunting grounds of the Osage Indians. Later it was the home of the Cherokee on their forced move westward. In an effort to keep the peace between the tribes, land purchases were made and boundaries redrawn. But the settlers and politicians of the Arkansas Territory wanted the fertile valleys and timbered lands for themselves.

In the 1820s the Arkansas Territorial government opened the lands to white settlement. Meanwhile the Federal government passed laws to keep them closed. Throughout this wrangling, folks came, joining the squatters who had come earlier. All homesteaded under the sometimes realized threat of eviction. But by 1829 the land was opened officially for settlement.

These early settlers were hardy, adventurous, and smart. They knew how to clear land, grow crops, make and repair tools, preserve food, construct buildings, weave cloth, sew clothing, care for livestock, and doctor themselves. The work was hard, but the rewards were great—independence, a new beginning, and a plot of land to call their own.

They came in ox-drawn wagons, bringing with them the things they needed to begin a new life. Tools, housewares, furniture, clothing and linens, livestock, seeds, and treasured heirlooms were carefully chosen. They traveled as far as the river could take them and then journeyed overland to reach their new home, hacking out paths through forested mountains and valleys or following rough military roads. Not all settlers came of their own free will. Some were enslaved Africans and African Americans. They too played a large role in settling the Ozarks.

Harvesting wheat, Kingston area (Madison County, Arkansas), early 1920s.

Harvesting wheat, Kingston area (Madison County), early 1920s. Rev. Elmer J. Bouher, photographer. Bouher Family Collection (S-2001-2-94)

The first settlers chose the best property—flat, fertile bottom lands or prairies near a river or spring, but within easy reach of the forest. James Preston Neal was nine years old when his family traveled from Kentucky to Cane Hill (Washington County) in 1829. His stepfather, the Reverend Andrew “Uncle Buck” Buchanan, spied a nice piece of land with a spring on it, only to find that it was already claimed. The hunter who had the property offered to give it to Uncle Buck provided two conditions were met. First, that the hunter could find another good spring for himself, and second, that Uncle Buck would preach two good sermons. The deal was made.

Folks with money bought “improved” lands, cleared and ready for farming, or unimproved government land at a lower price. Those without money became squatters, taking over a piece of land, improving it, and hoping to someday buy it outright. Sometimes claim jumpers bought their land, forcing the squatters to buy it back or move on. Later on, the Homestead Act of 1862 allowed many U.S. citizens the right to claim 160 acres of public land provided they began living on it and improving it within six months. After five years, if they had met the improvement requirements, they received title to the land.

Settlers came with their extended family or joined relatives already on the frontier. It was more important to settle near kinfolk than on the best available land. Kin could help with big chores like clearing land or harvesting crops as well as aid families in overcoming hardships. Early farm families were often large in number to help with the heavy workload. And chores couldn’t wait. Crops had to be planted, food harvested, and cows milked at the proper time.

Over the years change came to Northwest Arkansas. Communities grew, businesses started, transportation improved, labor-saving tools were invented, educational opportunities expanded, and new folks coming from the North or from overseas. But the area remained largely rural and agricultural well into the 20th century. Families stayed together, farming the same land as their ancestors and taking pride in their self-reliance and self-sufficiency. The land was theirs and they knew how to live on it.

A large tract of land including what is now Northwest Arkansas was for a time the hunting grounds of the Osage Indians. Later it was the home of the Cherokee on their forced move westward. In an effort to keep the peace between the tribes, land purchases were made and boundaries redrawn. But the settlers and politicians of the Arkansas Territory wanted the fertile valleys and timbered lands for themselves.

Harvesting wheat, Kingston area (Madison County, Arkansas), early 1920s.

Harvesting wheat, Kingston area (Madison County), early 1920s. Rev. Elmer J. Bouher, photographer. Bouher Family Collection (S-2001-2-94)

In the 1820s the Arkansas Territorial government opened the lands to white settlement. Meanwhile the Federal government passed laws to keep them closed. Throughout this wrangling, folks came, joining the squatters who had come earlier. All homesteaded under the sometimes realized threat of eviction. But by 1829 the land was opened officially for settlement.

These early settlers were hardy, adventurous, and smart. They knew how to clear land, grow crops, make and repair tools, preserve food, construct buildings, weave cloth, sew clothing, care for livestock, and doctor themselves. The work was hard, but the rewards were great—independence, a new beginning, and a plot of land to call their own.

They came in ox-drawn wagons, bringing with them the things they needed to begin a new life. Tools, housewares, furniture, clothing and linens, livestock, seeds, and treasured heirlooms were carefully chosen. They traveled as far as the river could take them and then journeyed overland to reach their new home, hacking out paths through forested mountains and valleys or following rough military roads. Not all settlers came of their own free will. Some were enslaved Africans and African Americans. They too played a large role in settling the Ozarks.

The first settlers chose the best property—flat, fertile bottom lands or prairies near a river or spring, but within easy reach of the forest. James Preston Neal was nine years old when his family traveled from Kentucky to Cane Hill (Washington County) in 1829. His stepfather, the Reverend Andrew “Uncle Buck” Buchanan, spied a nice piece of land with a spring on it, only to find that it was already claimed. The hunter who had the property offered to give it to Uncle Buck provided two conditions were met. First, that the hunter could find another good spring for himself, and second, that Uncle Buck would preach two good sermons. The deal was made.

Folks with money bought “improved” lands, cleared and ready for farming, or unimproved government land at a lower price. Those without money became squatters, taking over a piece of land, improving it, and hoping to someday buy it outright. Sometimes claim jumpers bought their land, forcing the squatters to buy it back or move on. Later on, the Homestead Act of 1862 allowed many U.S. citizens the right to claim 160 acres of public land provided they began living on it and improving it within six months. After five years, if they had met the improvement requirements, they received title to the land.

Settlers came with their extended family or joined relatives already on the frontier. It was more important to settle near kinfolk than on the best available land. Kin could help with big chores like clearing land or harvesting crops as well as aid families in overcoming hardships. Early farm families were often large in number to help with the heavy workload. And chores couldn’t wait. Crops had to be planted, food harvested, and cows milked at the proper time.

Over the years change came to Northwest Arkansas. Communities grew, businesses started, transportation improved, labor-saving tools were invented, educational opportunities expanded, and new folks coming from the North or from overseas. But the area remained largely rural and agricultural well into the 20th century. Families stayed together, farming the same land as their ancestors and taking pride in their self-reliance and self-sufficiency. The land was theirs and they knew how to live on it.

Creating a Home

Settlers could bring only a limited amount of textiles, tools, furniture, and household goods with them. When they got to their new homestead they had to make nearly everything for themselves, including a house in which to live.

The James S. and Ann Eliza Counts McDonald family, Thorney (Madison County), about 1900.

The James S. and Ann Eliza Counts McDonald family, Thorney (Madison County), about 1900. Some families, even as they prospered, continued to live in their old log cabins, adding on as needed. Gary King Collection (S-97-2-135)

Home. The settler’s first permanent shelter was often a small, square, notched-log structure. Home building was a community affair. Many workers were needed to lift the logs in place. While the heavy work was going on, the woman of the house, and maybe some of the other women, prepared a big dinner, laying out a spread of ham, cornbread, salads, pies, and other tasty foods. Good food, fiddle music, and dancing made house-raising a fun event.

Tools and Household Goods. If a family didn’t bring chairs or benches with them, primitive versions were made from split logs and tree limbs. A puncheon bed made of thick slabs of wood resting on a frame was partially embedded into a corner of the log cabin as it was being built; a post held up the unattached corner. Rope beds used a network of cording crisscrossed through a frame. The rope sagged over time and required retightening, giving meaning to the phrase, “Sleep tight, don’t let the bedbugs bite.”

Wood was fashioned into tableware such as spoons, bowls, and trenchers (plates). Tools and equipment such as yokes for oxen, rakes, and axe handles were made of wood, but the axe head and other metal implements had to be purchased elsewhere. Split-oak strips were woven into baskets and water dippers were made from dried gourds. Cord and shoelaces could be made from strips of rawhide or tanned leather. John Ed Watkins, born in 1854 to early settlers of the upper Crooked Creek Valley (Boone County), recounted that pawpaw bark was used for such things as woven chair seats and bed ropes, and for tying up minnow seines (fish nets).

Lighting. Most of a family’s work was done during daylight hours. Although a fireplace provided some light, it wasn’t enough for reading or task work. Grease lamps were common. A loosely twisted cotton rag or homemade cotton wick was placed in a saucer, hollowed-out stone, or even a turtle shell filled with hog or bear grease. When the exposed part of the wick was lit, it gave a weak light. Good light could be had by burning pine knots, hard, resinous pieces of wood. Tallow candles were made if the family had beef or mutton fat and a metal mold, or took the time to dip wicks repeatedly into liquid animal fat or beeswax. Candles were often saved for special occasions like holidays or visits from the preacher.

Clothing and Textiles. Some of the earliest settlers wore shirts and breeches made from tanned animal skins. Cloth was used for most clothing and was usually made at home. Ready-made cloth like cotton calico and fancy wool suiting was expensive on the frontier. Cotton and flax (for linen) were planted and sheep raised for their wool. The resulting fibers were cleaned, carded (combed), and spun into thin threads and heavier yarns. Some yarns were knitted into stockings and scarves. Others were threaded onto a loom and woven into cloth.

Homespun cloth was used for household textiles like blankets, towels, and sheets and for making clothing. Early settlers to Northwest Arkansas repeatedly mentioned “linsey” and “jean.” Linsey was a lightweight fabric made from wool and sometimes linen or cotton. It was used for making dresses and shirts. Jean was a heavy wool cloth used for men’s work clothing. Women cut clothing patterns themselves. If they weren’t a talented tailor or seamstress, the clothes would be ill-fitting—but they were still worn. Clothing took time to make and storage was limited. Folks might have two sets of everyday clothes and a better set for Sundays.

Shoes. Most shoes were made from home-tanned leather made from the hides of deer, hogs, and cattle. Squirrel leather was sometimes used for young children’s shoes. John Ed Watkins recalled that in his youth shoes were sewn together with flax thread rubbed with beeswax and the soles were nailed on with tiny pegs made of maple wood. Boots were worn in the winter. As they wore down, their tops were cut off to make summer plow shoes. Footwear was greased and polished weekly with a mix of pine tar, tallow, and soot. Children usually went barefoot spring, summer, and fall.

Money. Neighbors shared resources such as candle molds and sorghum mills or traded for the things they needed. But sometimes money was necessary to purchase land, pay taxes, or buy special goods like salt, lead for bullets, ready-made fabric, and metal tools. Folks earned money by selling surplus meat and grain, dried apples, deer hides, homespun cloth, lumber, and marketable herbs like ginseng. They also took on short-term jobs like hauling freight. As communities grew, specialty businesses sprung up. Millers ground corn and wheat, tanners cured leather and fashioned shoes, and blacksmiths shod horses and made tools. Washington County led the way in population growth and town building, with fast-growing professional, industrial, and agricultural sectors.

Some Early Settlers

From left:
Jacob A. Meek, 1811–1882. Came to Dry Creek (Carroll County) about 1836 from Tennessee. Farmer, trader, livestock dealer and mayor of Berryville; raised ten children. Carroll County Heritage Center Collection (S-84-236-24)

Sylvanus and Catherine Blackburn, 1809–1890; 1809–1890. Came to War Eagle (Benton County) in 1832 from Tennessee. Ran gristmill, sawmill, blacksmith shop, and carpentry shop; started first school in area; raised nine children and eight adopted children. Ada Lee Shook Collection (S-85-323-36)

Jeremiah Combs, 1788–1867. Came to Combs (Madison County) about 1832 from Tennessee. Farmer; raised twelve children. John D. Little Collection (S-84-18-1)

Sam Van Winkle, 1822–1913. Brought to Van Hollow (Benton County) before the Civil War as an enslaved person from Kentucky. Saw mill operator and orchard keeper; raised three children. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-171)

Lucinda Bloyed Karnes, 1840-1915. Born in West Fork (Washington County); her parents came from Kentucky in 1836. Housewife; raised two children and orphaned nephew. Pody Gay Collection (S-2006-26-7)

Creating a Home

James S. and Ann Eliza Counts McDonald family, Thorney (Madison County), about 1900. Some families, even as they prospered, continued to live in their old log cabins, adding on as needed. Gary King Collection (S-97-2-135)

Settlers could bring only a limited amount of textiles, tools, furniture, and household goods with them. When they got to their new homestead they had to make nearly everything for themselves, including a house in which to live.

Home. The settler’s first permanent shelter was often a small, square, notched-log structure. Home building was a community affair. Many workers were needed to lift the logs in place. While the heavy work was going on, the woman of the house, and maybe some of the other women, prepared a big dinner, laying out a spread of ham, cornbread, salads, pies, and other tasty foods. Good food, fiddle music, and dancing made house-raising a fun event.

Tools and Household Goods. If a family didn’t bring chairs or benches with them, primitive versions were made from split logs and tree limbs. A puncheon bed made of thick slabs of wood resting on a frame was partially embedded into a corner of the log cabin as it was being built; a post held up the unattached corner. Rope beds used a network of cording crisscrossed through a frame. The rope sagged over time and required retightening, giving meaning to the phrase, “Sleep tight, don’t let the bedbugs bite.”

Wood was fashioned into tableware such as spoons, bowls, and trenchers (plates). Tools and equipment such as yokes for oxen, rakes, and axe handles were made of wood, but the axe head and other metal implements had to be purchased elsewhere. Split-oak strips were woven into baskets and water dippers were made from dried gourds. Cord and shoelaces could be made from strips of rawhide or tanned leather. John Ed Watkins, born in 1854 to early settlers of the upper Crooked Creek Valley (Boone County), recounted that pawpaw bark was used for such things as woven chair seats and bed ropes, and for tying up minnow seines (fish nets).

Lighting. Most of a family’s work was done during daylight hours. Although a fireplace provided some light, it wasn’t enough for reading or task work. Grease lamps were common. A loosely twisted cotton rag or homemade cotton wick was placed in a saucer, hollowed-out stone, or even a turtle shell filled with hog or bear grease. When the exposed part of the wick was lit, it gave a weak light. Good light could be had by burning pine knots, hard, resinous pieces of wood. Tallow candles were made if the family had beef or mutton fat and a metal mold, or took the time to dip wicks repeatedly into liquid animal fat or beeswax. Candles were often saved for special occasions like holidays or visits from the preacher.

Clothing and Textiles. Some of the earliest settlers wore shirts and breeches made from tanned animal skins. Cloth was used for most clothing and was usually made at home. Ready-made cloth like cotton calico and fancy wool suiting was expensive on the frontier. Cotton and flax (for linen) were planted and sheep raised for their wool. The resulting fibers were cleaned, carded (combed), and spun into thin threads and heavier yarns. Some yarns were knitted into stockings and scarves. Others were threaded onto a loom and woven into cloth.

Homespun cloth was used for household textiles like blankets, towels, and sheets and for making clothing. Early settlers to Northwest Arkansas repeatedly mentioned “linsey” and “jean.” Linsey was a lightweight fabric made from wool and sometimes linen or cotton. It was used for making dresses and shirts. Jean was a heavy wool cloth used for men’s work clothing. Women cut clothing patterns themselves. If they weren’t a talented tailor or seamstress, the clothes would be ill-fitting—but they were still worn. Clothing took time to make and storage was limited. Folks might have two sets of everyday clothes and a better set for Sundays.

Shoes. Most shoes were made from home-tanned leather made from the hides of deer, hogs, and cattle. Squirrel leather was sometimes used for young children’s shoes. John Ed Watkins recalled that in his youth shoes were sewn together with flax thread rubbed with beeswax and the soles were nailed on with tiny pegs made of maple wood. Boots were worn in the winter. As they wore down, their tops were cut off to make summer plow shoes. Footwear was greased and polished weekly with a mix of pine tar, tallow, and soot. Children usually went barefoot spring, summer, and fall.

Money. Neighbors shared resources such as candle molds and sorghum mills or traded for the things they needed. But sometimes money was necessary to purchase land, pay taxes, or buy special goods like salt, lead for bullets, ready-made fabric, and metal tools. Folks earned money by selling surplus meat and grain, dried apples, deer hides, homespun cloth, lumber, and marketable herbs like ginseng. They also took on short-term jobs like hauling freight. As communities grew, specialty businesses sprung up. Millers ground corn and wheat, tanners cured leather and fashioned shoes, and blacksmiths shod horses and made tools. Washington County led the way in population growth and town building, with fast-growing professional, industrial, and agricultural sectors.

Some Early Settlers

From left:
Jacob A. Meek, 1811–1882. Came to Dry Creek (Carroll County) about 1836 from Tennessee. Farmer, trader, livestock dealer and mayor of Berryville; raised ten children. Carroll County Heritage Center Collection (S-84-236-24)

Sylvanus and Catherine Blackburn, 1809–1890; 1809–1890. Came to War Eagle (Benton County) in 1832 from Tennessee. Ran gristmill, sawmill, blacksmith shop, and carpentry shop; started first school in area; raised nine children and eight adopted children. Ada Lee Shook Collection (S-85-323-36)

Jeremiah Combs, 1788–1867. Came to Combs (Madison County) about 1832 from Tennessee. Farmer; raised twelve children. John D. Little Collection (S-84-18-1)

Sam Van Winkle, 1822–1913. Brought to Van Hollow (Benton County) before the Civil War as an enslaved person from Kentucky. Saw mill operator and orchard keeper; raised three children. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-171)

Lucinda Bloyed Karnes, 1840-1915. Born in West Fork (Washington County); her parents came from Kentucky in 1836. Housewife; raised two children and orphaned nephew. Pody Gay Collection (S-2006-26-7)

Growing and Gathering Food

Most of a family’s energy and resources went into food production and food preservation for themselves and for their livestock. Each homestead produced a variety of crops, hedging their bets against a catastrophic crop failure and ensuring a wide range of nutrients for their diet.

Using smoke to calm bees at a bee tree, Madison County, Arkansas, circa 1939.

Using smoke to calm bees at a bee tree, Madison County, circa 1939. From left: Nuell Stepp, John Acord, and Joe Acord. Bob Eaton, photographer. Alice Martin Collection (S-2006-31-2)

Gathering Food. Soon after the settlers came they hunted, trapped, and fished for meat to allow their livestock and crops time to grow. Deer, turkeys, squirrels, and rabbits were often targeted, but quail, prairie chickens, opossums, raccoons, wild hogs, and even the occasional bear found their way into the stewpot. Game was usually eaten fresh as it didn’t lend itself to long-term preservation.

Blackberries, huckleberries, walnuts, persimmons, pawpaws (sometimes called Arkansas bananas), gooseberries, wild onion and garlic, sarvis (service) berries, wild crab apples, summer grapes, and chinquapin, hazel, and hickory nuts were gathered from the fields and forests. Greens such as poke sallet, narrowleaf dock, lamb’s quarters, plantain, water cress, hog weed, and wild mustard were important sources of vitamins and minerals. The resin from the sweet gum tree was used as chewing gum.

Wild bees were followed to their hive in the hollow of a tree. Settlers carved an “X” on the “bee tree” to claim it. Or they might relocate the bees to a “bee gum,” a homemade hive made from an upright hollow log threaded with crossed sticks and capped with a lid. Bees were important for their honey and wax and for their ability to pollinate plants.

Maple trees were tapped in early spring as their sap rose. A hole was bored in the trunk and a small piece of hollow river cane was used to funnel the clear liquid into a bucket. Hours of boiling rendered syrup; further boiling produced a thick paste that, when cooled, hardened into a sugar-like consistency.

Growing Food. Corn was the mainstay of the diet, both for people and livestock; acres were devoted to it. Sorghum was grown for the molasses that could be made from it. Other fruits and vegetables were raised in the home garden and orchard. Apples, sweet potatoes and Irish (white) potatoes, watermelons, beans, cabbages, turnips, peaches, peas, collard and mustard greens, pumpkins, and squash were carefully tended. A portion of the crop was allowed to go to seed, to be saved and planted the next year. In the fall, seed potatoes were placed in a straw-lined hole in the ground to keep them insulated from freezing weather.

Easy-to-keep hogs and chickens were the most common livestock on the farm. In the 1840 census of Washington County, 36,000 hogs and 10,000 chickens were counted; there were 7,148 residents. Most animals offered more than their meat. Cowhide was turned into leather while the animal’s milk was churned into butter. Hog fat was rendered into lard and sheep were sheared for their wool. Chickens, geese, and ducks produced eggs and their feathers were used to stuff pillows and mattresses.

Uncovering seed potatoes for spring planting, Pettigrew (Madison County, Arkansas), 1940.

Uncovering seed potatoes for spring planting, Pettigrew (Madison County), 1940. From left: Boyd Bennett, Otto Bennett, and Oscar Bennett. Otto Bennett Collection (S-99-66-760)

Purchasing Food. Most merchandise traveled the same paths as did the settlers—shipped by river and then hauled by wagon to major settlements. One common route was up the Arkansas River to Van Buren. Goods could also be transported on the White River from Jacksonport, Arkansas, or brought down from Springfield, Missouri.

Salt was an important preservative. It was usually purchased, although some settlers were lucky to have on their land natural salt licks, shallow depressions in the ground which filled with brackish (salty) water. A major salt works located west of Fort Smith probably supplied much of the area’s salt. When salt was scarce during the Civil War, families scooped the soil from the smokehouse floor and put it in an ash hopper. Water was poured through and the resulting brine boiled down to extract the salt.

Coffee beans, when available, were purchased green and roasted at home. For families who couldn’t afford the expense of coffee, especially during the Civil War, wheat, cornmeal, or rye was parched (toasted) over a fire and brewed, sometimes with molasses.

Some Early Settlers

From left:
James O. Nicholson, 1824–1915. Came to Gaither (Boone County) in 1852 from Alabama. Farmer and first merchant in Harrison; raised nine children. Boone County Library/J. W. Nicholson Collection (S-87-38-7)

Nancy Stewart Anderson, 1843–1921. Born near Crosses (Madison County); her parents came from Missouri in the 1840s. Housewife; raised six children. James T. Anderson Collection (S-98-1-140)

John and Dorothea Holcombe, 1797–1876; 1808–1874. Came to West Fork (Washington County) about 1839 from Indiana. Preacher, farmer, and platter of Shiloh (now Springdale); raised sixteen children. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-1628) and Susan Chadick Collection (S-2006-175-7)

Adeline Blakely, about 1850–1945. Brought to the Prairie Grove area (Washington County) as an enslaved person about 1852 from Tennessee. Housekeeper. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-1679)

Blackburn H. Berry,1814-1893. Came to Berryville (Carroll County) in 1848 from Alabama. Preacher, merchant, and co-founder of Berryville; raised over eighteen children. Carroll County Heritage Center Collection (S-85-18-10)

Growing and Gathering Food
Using smoke to calm bees at a bee tree, Madison County, Arkansas, circa 1939.

Using smoke to calm bees at a bee tree, Madison County, circa 1939. From left: Nuell Stepp, John Acord, and Joe Acord. Bob Eaton, photographer. Alice Martin Collection (S-2006-31-2)

Most of a family’s energy and resources went into food production and food preservation for themselves and for their livestock. Each homestead produced a variety of crops, hedging their bets against a catastrophic crop failure and ensuring a wide range of nutrients for their diet.

Gathering Food. Soon after the settlers came they hunted, trapped, and fished for meat to allow their livestock and crops time to grow. Deer, turkeys, squirrels, and rabbits were often targeted, but quail, prairie chickens, opossums, raccoons, wild hogs, and even the occasional bear found their way into the stewpot. Game was usually eaten fresh as it didn’t lend itself to long-term preservation.

Blackberries, huckleberries, walnuts, persimmons, pawpaws (sometimes called Arkansas bananas), gooseberries, wild onion and garlic, sarvis (service) berries, wild crab apples, summer grapes, and chinquapin, hazel, and hickory nuts were gathered from the fields and forests. Greens such as poke sallet, narrowleaf dock, lamb’s quarters, plantain, water cress, hog weed, and wild mustard were important sources of vitamins and minerals. The resin from the sweet gum tree was used as chewing gum.

Wild bees were followed to their hive in the hollow of a tree. Settlers carved an “X” on the “bee tree” to claim it. Or they might relocate the bees to a “bee gum,” a homemade hive made from an upright hollow log threaded with crossed sticks and capped with a lid. Bees were important for their honey and wax and for their ability to pollinate plants.

Maple trees were tapped in early spring as their sap rose. A hole was bored in the trunk and a small piece of hollow river cane was used to funnel the clear liquid into a bucket. Hours of boiling rendered syrup; further boiling produced a thick paste that, when cooled, hardened into a sugar-like consistency.

Growing Food. Corn was the mainstay of the diet, both for people and livestock; acres were devoted to it. Sorghum was grown for the molasses that could be made from it. Other fruits and vegetables were raised in the home garden and orchard. Apples, sweet potatoes and Irish (white) potatoes, watermelons, beans, cabbages, turnips, peaches, peas, collard and mustard greens, pumpkins, and squash were carefully tended. A portion of the crop was allowed to go to seed, to be saved and planted the next year. In the fall, seed potatoes were placed in a straw-lined hole in the ground to keep them insulated from freezing weather.

Easy-to-keep hogs and chickens were the most common livestock on the farm. In the 1840 census of Washington County, 36,000 hogs and 10,000 chickens were counted; there were 7,148 residents. Most animals offered more than their meat. Cowhide was turned into leather while the animal’s milk was churned into butter. Hog fat was rendered into lard and sheep were sheared for their wool. Chickens, geese, and ducks produced eggs and their feathers were used to stuff pillows and mattresses.

Uncovering seed potatoes for spring planting, Pettigrew (Madison County, Arkansas), 1940.

Uncovering seed potatoes for spring planting, Pettigrew (Madison County), 1940. From left: Boyd Bennett, Otto Bennett, and Oscar Bennett. Otto Bennett Collection (S-99-66-760)

Purchasing Food. Most merchandise traveled the same paths as did the settlers—shipped by river and then hauled by wagon to major settlements. One common route was up the Arkansas River to Van Buren. Goods could also be transported on the White River from Jacksonport, Arkansas, or brought down from Springfield, Missouri.

Salt was an important preservative. It was usually purchased, although some settlers were lucky to have on their land natural salt licks, shallow depressions in the ground which filled with brackish (salty) water. A major salt works located west of Fort Smith probably supplied much of the area’s salt. When salt was scarce during the Civil War, families scooped the soil from the smokehouse floor and put it in an ash hopper. Water was poured through and the resulting brine boiled down to extract the salt.

Coffee beans, when available, were purchased green and roasted at home. For families who couldn’t afford the expense of coffee, especially during the Civil War, wheat, cornmeal, or rye was parched (toasted) over a fire and brewed, sometimes with molasses.

Some Early Settlers

From left:
James O. Nicholson, 1824–1915. Came to Gaither (Boone County) in 1852 from Alabama. Farmer and first merchant in Harrison; raised nine children. Boone County Library/J. W. Nicholson Collection (S-87-38-7)

Nancy Stewart Anderson, 1843–1921. Born near Crosses (Madison County); her parents came from Missouri in the 1840s. Housewife; raised six children. James T. Anderson Collection (S-98-1-140)

John and Dorothea Holcombe, 1797–1876; 1808–1874. Came to West Fork (Washington County) about 1839 from Indiana. Preacher, farmer, and platter of Shiloh (now Springdale); raised sixteen children. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-1628) and Susan Chadick Collection (S-2006-175-7)

Adeline Blakely, about 1850–1945. Brought to the Prairie Grove area (Washington County) as an enslaved person about 1852 from Tennessee. Housekeeper. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-1679)

Blackburn H. Berry,1814-1893. Came to Berryville (Carroll County) in 1848 from Alabama. Preacher, merchant, and co-founder of Berryville; raised over eighteen children. Carroll County Heritage Center Collection (S-85-18-10)

Preserving and Preparing Food

The food that the settlers grew, gathered, and harvested had to be preserved for the times when fresh food was limited, such as winter. If not enough food was produced, or something went wrong in the preservation process, the family would be in dire straits.

Abandoned cellar with “stone jars,” probably Cane Hill (Washington County), mid 1900s.

Abandoned cellar with “stone jars,” probably Cane Hill (Washington County), mid 1900s. Mildred Carnahan Collection (S-98-2-685)

Drying. Apples were peeled, quartered, and spread on scaffolds or on a roof and allowed to dry in the hot sun for several days. Pumpkins were sliced into rings and hung by a pole near the fireplace. “Leather britches” were made by drying green beans threaded onto strings. Drying food outside had its dangers, as rain and dew had to be guarded against. If needed, an outdoor stone kiln was built to dry food more quickly.

Corn was usually dried on the ear and often stored in corn cribs, slatted structures with plenty of air circulation. Frank Nance of Madison County, who came with his parents from Kentucky in 1857, said that “grittins” were made by rubbing a semi-dried ear of corn over the rough side of a homemade grater made from a piece of metal punctured with many holes. When needed, corn or wheat was pounded into a flour-like meal at home or at a nearby grist mill.

Cold Storage. The natural insulating and cooling properties of the earth and water were used to preserve foods. “Stone jars” (ceramic crocks) of preserved meat or apple and persimmon butters were kept in root cellars or placed in a springhouse, a small structure built over a natural spring or small creek. Stone-lined cellars or straw-lined holes in the ground held hardy foods like potatoes, apples, pears, turnips, carrots, and cabbages. Sometimes milk and other perishables were lowered in a container or a coarse-fiber tow sack into a well, spring, or creek.

Salting and Smoking. Pork was the only meat that the early settlers were able to preserve long term. The meat was dry-cured, meaning that it was packed in salt for several weeks. As the salt pulls the water out of the meat, it deprives mold and bacteria of moisture. Not only does salt keep meat from spoiling, it also enhances its appearance and improves its texture and flavor. Saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sometimes found in caves, was added to the curing mixture. It helped the meat keep its pink color and improved flavor.

Smoking the meat for several weeks over a small fire of apple or hickory wood adds flavor. More importantly, the compounds in the smoke inhibit or kill microbial growth. If left un-smoked, the meat’s surface fats could go rancid, spoiling the meat and producing an off flavor.

Fermentation and Pickling. Surplus food was turned into beverages or ingredients for food preparation. Corn and fruits were fermented and distilled to make whiskey and fruit brandies, while fermented apple juice was allowed to turn into hard cider. Vinegar was made by boiling apple peels and cores (sometimes adding molasses) and letting the mixture ferment. The microorganisms that cause fermentation release vitamins, making the end product more nutritious.

Cabbage was kept by slicing it thinly and layering it with salt in a stone jar covered with a cloth and weighted down with a plate. The salt released the water in the cabbage creating a brine. The top portion of the cabbage stayed crisp while the bottom turned to sauerkraut. To make headcheese, a meat jelly, the head and feet of a hog were first brined in a salt and vinegar solution and then boiled before the meat was picked off the bones, tied up in a cloth, and allowed to set up until firm.

Mealtime. What did the settlers make with the food they grew, hunted, gathered, and preserved? Nearly every meal featured corn—cornbread, cornpones (water and cornmeal baked over an open fire), cornmeal mush, or grits made from hominy, whole kernels of dried corn soaked in lye to remove the hard outer layer. The lime in the lye was important, even though the settlers didn’t know it at the time. It makes corn’s niacin content more nutritionally available, reducing the chance of pellagra, a vitamin-deficiency disease.

Pork was the other mainstay of the settlers’ diets. Fried, boiled, salted, smoked, roasted, or stewed, pork found its way into nearly every meal. Some kind of “sallet” or salad was also served like mustard greens or pokeweed. Sometimes eaten fresh, but more often boiled for a long time with a piece of pork rind or bacon for flavor, creating a delicious “pot likker” in which to crumble cornbread. Beverages included sassafras root or spicewood tea, coffee, apple cider, and milk. Most of the family’s foods were skillfully cooked in iron skillets and kettles over an open fire.

Some Early Settlers

From left:
James and Elizabeth Fancher, 1790–1866; 1800–1891. Came to Osage Valley (Carroll County) in 1838 from Tennessee. Farmer; raised 14 children. Carroll County Heritage Center Collection (S-85-18-14  and S-84-211-159)

Fanny Hill, 1833–1918. Brought to Cane Hill (Washington County) as an enslaved person in 1855 from Alabama. Children’s nursemaid, seamstress, nurse, and land owner. Mildred Carnahan Collection (S-98-2-506)

Peter Mankins Sr.,1776–1887. Came to the Sulphur City area (Washington County) in 1832 from Kentucky. Farmer; raised 11 children and 3 stepchildren. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-1784)

Bradley Bunch, 1818–1894. Came to Osage Township (Carroll County) about 1838 from Tennessee. Justice of the peace and state senator; raised 12 children. Carroll County Heritage Center Collection (S-85-6-36)

Andrew Buchanan,1792–1857. Came to Prairie Grove (Washington County) in 1829 from Kentucky. Preacher and farmer; helped establish Cane Hill College; raised 2 stepchildren. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-1105)

Preserving and Preparing Food
Abandoned cellar with “stone jars,” probably Cane Hill (Washington County), mid 1900s.

Abandoned cellar with “stone jars,” probably Cane Hill (Washington County), mid 1900s. Mildred Carnahan Collection (S-98-2-685)

The food that the settlers grew, gathered, and harvested had to be preserved for the times when fresh food was limited, such as winter. If not enough food was produced, or something went wrong in the preservation process, the family would be in dire straits.

Drying. Apples were peeled, quartered, and spread on scaffolds or on a roof and allowed to dry in the hot sun for several days. Pumpkins were sliced into rings and hung by a pole near the fireplace. “Leather britches” were made by drying green beans threaded onto strings. Drying food outside had its dangers, as rain and dew had to be guarded against. If needed, an outdoor stone kiln was built to dry food more quickly.

Corn was usually dried on the ear and often stored in corn cribs, slatted structures with plenty of air circulation. Frank Nance of Madison County, who came with his parents from Kentucky in 1857, said that “grittins” were made by rubbing a semi-dried ear of corn over the rough side of a homemade grater made from a piece of metal punctured with many holes. When needed, corn or wheat was pounded into a flour-like meal at home or at a nearby grist mill.

Cold Storage. The natural insulating and cooling properties of the earth and water were used to preserve foods. “Stone jars” (ceramic crocks) of preserved meat or apple and persimmon butters were kept in root cellars or placed in a springhouse, a small structure built over a natural spring or small creek. Stone-lined cellars or straw-lined holes in the ground held hardy foods like potatoes, apples, pears, turnips, carrots, and cabbages. Sometimes milk and other perishables were lowered in a container or a coarse-fiber tow sack into a well, spring, or creek.

Salting and Smoking. Pork was the only meat that the early settlers were able to preserve long term. The meat was dry-cured, meaning that it was packed in salt for several weeks. As the salt pulls the water out of the meat, it deprives mold and bacteria of moisture. Not only does salt keep meat from spoiling, it also enhances its appearance and improves its texture and flavor. Saltpeter (potassium nitrate), sometimes found in caves, was added to the curing mixture. It helped the meat keep its pink color and improved flavor.

Smoking the meat for several weeks over a small fire of apple or hickory wood adds flavor. More importantly, the compounds in the smoke inhibit or kill microbial growth. If left un-smoked, the meat’s surface fats could go rancid, spoiling the meat and producing an off flavor.

Fermentation and Pickling. Surplus food was turned into beverages or ingredients for food preparation. Corn and fruits were fermented and distilled to make whiskey and fruit brandies, while fermented apple juice was allowed to turn into hard cider. Vinegar was made by boiling apple peels and cores (sometimes adding molasses) and letting the mixture ferment. The microorganisms that cause fermentation release vitamins, making the end product more nutritious.

Cabbage was kept by slicing it thinly and layering it with salt in a stone jar covered with a cloth and weighted down with a plate. The salt released the water in the cabbage creating a brine. The top portion of the cabbage stayed crisp while the bottom turned to sauerkraut. To make headcheese, a meat jelly, the head and feet of a hog were first brined in a salt and vinegar solution and then boiled before the meat was picked off the bones, tied up in a cloth, and allowed to set up until firm.

Mealtime. What did the settlers make with the food they grew, hunted, gathered, and preserved? Nearly every meal featured corn—cornbread, cornpones (water and cornmeal baked over an open fire), cornmeal mush, or grits made from hominy, whole kernels of dried corn soaked in lye to remove the hard outer layer. The lime in the lye was important, even though the settlers didn’t know it at the time. It makes corn’s niacin content more nutritionally available, reducing the chance of pellagra, a vitamin-deficiency disease.

Pork was the other mainstay of the settlers’ diets. Fried, boiled, salted, smoked, roasted, or stewed, pork found its way into nearly every meal. Some kind of “sallet” or salad was also served like mustard greens or pokeweed. Sometimes eaten fresh, but more often boiled for a long time with a piece of pork rind or bacon for flavor, creating a delicious “pot likker” in which to crumble cornbread. Beverages included sassafras root or spicewood tea, coffee, apple cider, and milk. Most of the family’s foods were skillfully cooked in iron skillets and kettles over an open fire.

Photo Gallery

Annie Watson with her butter churn, Springdale, Arkansas,, 1940s.

Annie Watson with her butter churn, Springdale, 1940s. Betty Sparks Collection (S-2002-99-17)

A cow requires milking twice a day if it isn’t nursing a calf. Settlers who allowed their cows to graze at will in the fields surrounding their homestead had to call them back home for milking. Sometimes they were enticed with corn and other treats or by tethering a calf near the cabin. The better the cow was fed, the better the butter tasted. Cows were fed such things as potato peels, broth, cabbage leaves, pumpkins, kitchen scraps—even dishwater!

Fresh milk was strained and allowed to settle so the rich cream would rise to the surface. The cream was skimmed off and agitated in a stoneware (ceramic) churn by moving a wood dasher (paddle) up and down. Eventually small globules of fat formed together. When that happened, the buttermilk was poured off and the churning continued. After much hard work the butter formed into a lump, leaving behind the whey, the watery part of the milk. Whey and sometimes buttermilk were fed to livestock.

Salt was added to the butter for flavor and preservation. It was mixed together in a wood bowl with a small wood paddle which had been wetted to cool the wood and keep the butter from sticking. When stored properly, butter can keep for a long time.

Annie Watson with her butter churn, Springdale, Arkansas,, 1940s.

Annie Watson with her butter churn, Springdale, 1940s. Betty Sparks Collection (S-2002-99-17)

A cow requires milking twice a day if it isn’t nursing a calf. Settlers who allowed their cows to graze at will in the fields surrounding their homestead had to call them back home for milking. Sometimes they were enticed with corn and other treats or by tethering a calf near the cabin. The better the cow was fed, the better the butter tasted. Cows were fed such things as potato peels, broth, cabbage leaves, pumpkins, kitchen scraps—even dishwater!

Fresh milk was strained and allowed to settle so the rich cream would rise to the surface. The cream was skimmed off and agitated in a stoneware (ceramic) churn by moving a wood dasher (paddle) up and down. Eventually small globules of fat formed together. When that happened, the buttermilk was poured off and the churning continued. After much hard work the butter formed into a lump, leaving behind the whey, the watery part of the milk. Whey and sometimes buttermilk were fed to livestock.

Salt was added to the butter for flavor and preservation. It was mixed together in a wood bowl with a small wood paddle which had been wetted to cool the wood and keep the butter from sticking. When stored properly, butter can keep for a long time.

Harvesting wheat, Madison County, Arkansas, circa 1900

Bohannon family members and friends pause from harvesting wheat with their grain cradles, Bohannon Mountain (Madison County), circa 1900. Julia Outland Collection (S-83-269-11A)

Corn was the most commonly grown grain, but folks also had small patches of wheat, oats, millet, and rye. Wheat thrived especially in the soil and climate of what would become Carroll and Boone Counties.

Early settlers harvested wheat by hand, first with curved knives called sickles, later with grain cradles—huge rake-like devices with a long blade. A skilled worker could harvest two acres of wheat a day with this tool. The advantage of a grain cradle was that it left the wheat heads aligned, making the stalks easier to gather and bind. The grain was dried in the fields in loose windrows (lines) or in shocks, bundles of stalks set on end.

Wheat berries were removed in several ways. The stalks could be beaten against a rod, flailed with a whip, or placed on a “threshing floor,” soil made smooth and hard from repeated tamping with water. Horses were walked around and around to break off the grain. The stalks were removed, the wheat swept up, and the dirt and chaff (plant debris) winnowed (blown) away.

Wheat and corn were often ground at home. One type of homemade mill involved tying a heavy hammer-like maul to one end of a pole which was balanced on a forked limb pushed into the ground. When the free end of the pole was moved up and down, the maul fell into a hollowed-out tree stump full of dried grain. The grain could also be taken to a grist mill, with the miller taking a portion of the grain in payment for his work.

Harvesting wheat, Madison County, Arkansas, circa 1900

Bohannon family members and friends pause from harvesting wheat with their grain cradles, Bohannon Mountain (Madison County), circa 1900. Julia Outland Collection (S-83-269-11A)

Corn was the most commonly grown grain, but folks also had small patches of wheat, oats, millet, and rye. Wheat thrived especially in the soil and climate of what would become Carroll and Boone Counties.

Early settlers harvested wheat by hand, first with curved knives called sickles, later with grain cradles—huge rake-like devices with a long blade. A skilled worker could harvest two acres of wheat a day with this tool. The advantage of a grain cradle was that it left the wheat heads aligned, making the stalks easier to gather and bind. The grain was dried in the fields in loose windrows (lines) or in shocks, bundles of stalks set on end.

Wheat berries were removed in several ways. The stalks could be beaten against a rod, flailed with a whip, or placed on a “threshing floor,” soil made smooth and hard from repeated tamping with water. Horses were walked around and around to break off the grain. The stalks were removed, the wheat swept up, and the dirt and chaff (plant debris) winnowed (blown) away.

Wheat and corn were often ground at home. One type of homemade mill involved tying a heavy hammer-like maul to one end of a pole which was balanced on a forked limb pushed into the ground. When the free end of the pole was moved up and down, the maul fell into a hollowed-out tree stump full of dried grain. The grain could also be taken to a grist mill, with the miller taking a portion of the grain in payment for his work.

Man with slaughtered hog, Pettigrew area (Madison County), 1920s–1930s. Wayne Martin Collection (S-94-55-54)

Hog butchering happened in the fall and required extra hands to get the work done. Meat was often shared with neighbors who then shared meat when it came time to butcher their livestock. After the hog’s throat was cut it was trussed up by its back legs to let the blood drain out. Its flesh was scalded with hot water and the hair scraped off. The internal organs were removed and the hog was left to cool overnight.

“Everything but the squeal” was used. The chops, backbone, ribs, tenderloin, lungs, and liver were eaten fresh. Headcheese (a meat jelly) was made from the head and feet. Brains were scrambled in eggs. Sausage was made by pounding meat scraps and fat with seasoning and stuffing the mixture into lengths of clean intestine. The fat was cooked slowly over a low fire to render out the lard. The lard was strained, leaving behind the cracklings (fried pork skin) which could be stirred into cornbread batter or used to make soap.

Some meat was cooked and placed in covered stoneware (ceramic) jars and preserved between layers of lard. Hams, shoulders, and side meat were covered in salt for three to six weeks, then hung in the smokehouse and smoked with hickory or sassafras chips for several weeks. Properly done, the salting, drying, and smoking process preserved the meat through the following summer. So what if a bit of mold had to be scraped off the outer layer of fat?

Man with slaughtered hog, Pettigrew area (Madison County), 1920s–1930s. Wayne Martin Collection (S-94-55-54)

Hog butchering happened in the fall and required extra hands to get the work done. Meat was often shared with neighbors who then shared meat when it came time to butcher their livestock. After the hog’s throat was cut it was trussed up by its back legs to let the blood drain out. Its flesh was scalded with hot water and the hair scraped off. The internal organs were removed and the hog was left to cool overnight.

“Everything but the squeal” was used. The chops, backbone, ribs, tenderloin, lungs, and liver were eaten fresh. Headcheese (a meat jelly) was made from the head and feet. Brains were scrambled in eggs. Sausage was made by pounding meat scraps and fat with seasoning and stuffing the mixture into lengths of clean intestine. The fat was cooked slowly over a low fire to render out the lard. The lard was strained, leaving behind the cracklings (fried pork skin) which could be stirred into cornbread batter or used to make soap.

Some meat was cooked and placed in covered stoneware (ceramic) jars and preserved between layers of lard. Hams, shoulders, and side meat were covered in salt for three to six weeks, then hung in the smokehouse and smoked with hickory or sassafras chips for several weeks. Properly done, the salting, drying, and smoking process preserved the meat through the following summer. So what if a bit of mold had to be scraped off the outer layer of fat?

Cutting ice, Oak Grove area (Carroll County), 1900s. Larry Parmlee Collection (S-85-5-26)

One way to preserve food for long periods of time is to keep it cool. Settlers used the earth’s natural insulating properties by storing hardy foods like potatoes or cabbage in straw-lined holes in the ground. Containers of food were suspended in wells or stored in springhouses, small sheds built over a spring or small creek. Caves and bluffs with overhanging ledges were cool spots, especially if a spring flowed out of them.

Winter often served as nature’s refrigerator. Food was buried in snow. Some folks cut blocks of ice from a frozen creek or pond and buried it below ground, surrounded by straw or sawdust, to keep (hopefully) through the summer months. Only a few families had the resources and labor to build icehouses. One surviving icehouse exists at the Peel House in Bentonville (Benton County). Built in 1875, the brick walls are over 11 inches thick. A three-inch hollow between the layers of brick was filled with sawdust

Cutting ice, Oak Grove area (Carroll County), 1900s. Larry Parmlee Collection (S-85-5-26)

One way to preserve food for long periods of time is to keep it cool. Settlers used the earth’s natural insulating properties by storing hardy foods like potatoes or cabbage in straw-lined holes in the ground. Containers of food were suspended in wells or stored in springhouses, small sheds built over a spring or small creek. Caves and bluffs with overhanging ledges were cool spots, especially if a spring flowed out of them.

Winter often served as nature’s refrigerator. Food was buried in snow. Some folks cut blocks of ice from a frozen creek or pond and buried it below ground, surrounded by straw or sawdust, to keep (hopefully) through the summer months. Only a few families had the resources and labor to build icehouses. One surviving icehouse exists at the Peel House in Bentonville (Benton County). Built in 1875, the brick walls are over 11 inches thick. A three-inch hollow between the layers of brick was filled with sawdust

Young squirrel hunter, Kingston (Madison County, Arkansas), early 1920s.

Young squirrel hunter, Kingston (Madison County), early 1920s. Flossie Smith Collection (S-98-88-500)

When the settlers arrived, their first meals were often made up of what they could find in the fields and forests surrounding their new homestead. It took time to plant crops and raise livestock. Later, wild game supplemented homegrown food and offered a varied diet.

Jim Auslam, who was born in Huntsville (Madison County) in 1866, remembered that as a youngster he and his neighbors took their guns and dogs out to hunt for meat. There were plenty of wild hogs where he lived. Hunters had to be careful, because the hogs were mean following a lean, hungry winter. “They would fight anything that would try to bother them, and they usually won. I have seen them cut a dog’s throat at one swipe, just like it was cut with a knife.”

A hunter had to take careful aim. The loud blast from a misfired shot caused the game to flee long before he had time to carefully reload his firearm. Plus, gunpowder, percussion caps, and lead had to be purchased, meaning that every shot had to count. Bullets were made at home by pouring molten lead into metal molds. Animal traps were made from such things as hollow logs, sapling branches, and rawhide cord.

Hunters employed careful observation to follow animal tracks and note deer trails, rabbit holes, bear dens, and turkey roosts. Dogs were used to track wildlife and drive them into tight spots where they could be killed. At night, a burning pine knot might be used to shine light into a deer’s eyes, momentarily bewildering it.

Most folks kept their rifle or muzzleloader handy, even while working the fields. One never knew when the opportunity to shoot game would come up. And firearms offered protection against strangers and predators. Hunters took aim on the wolves and wildcats that preyed on their livestock.

Young squirrel hunter, Kingston (Madison County, Arkansas), early 1920s.

Young squirrel hunter, Kingston (Madison County), early 1920s. Flossie Smith Collection (S-98-88-500)

When the settlers arrived, their first meals were often made up of what they could find in the fields and forests surrounding their new homestead. It took time to plant crops and raise livestock. Later, wild game supplemented homegrown food and offered a varied diet.

Jim Auslam, who was born in Huntsville (Madison County) in 1866, remembered that as a youngster he and his neighbors took their guns and dogs out to hunt for meat. There were plenty of wild hogs where he lived. Hunters had to be careful, because the hogs were mean following a lean, hungry winter. “They would fight anything that would try to bother them, and they usually won. I have seen them cut a dog’s throat at one swipe, just like it was cut with a knife.”

A hunter had to take careful aim. The loud blast from a misfired shot caused the game to flee long before he had time to carefully reload his firearm. Plus, gunpowder, percussion caps, and lead had to be purchased, meaning that every shot had to count. Bullets were made at home by pouring molten lead into metal molds. Animal traps were made from such things as hollow logs, sapling branches, and rawhide cord.

Hunters employed careful observation to follow animal tracks and note deer trails, rabbit holes, bear dens, and turkey roosts. Dogs were used to track wildlife and drive them into tight spots where they could be killed. At night, a burning pine knot might be used to shine light into a deer’s eyes, momentarily bewildering it.

Most folks kept their rifle or muzzleloader handy, even while working the fields. One never knew when the opportunity to shoot game would come up. And firearms offered protection against strangers and predators. Hunters took aim on the wolves and wildcats that preyed on their livestock.

Joe Rich plowing a field with the help of his mule, “John the Baptist,” Newton County, Arkansas, mid 1930s

Joe Rich plowing a field with the help of his mule, “John the Baptist,” Newton County, mid 1930s. Opal or Ernest Nicholson, photographer. Katie McCoy Collection (S-95-181-76)

Before a crop could be planted, the land had to be readied. Prairies existed in Northwest Arkansas, especially in the western half, and it didn’t take much to till the ground. In forested areas, trees were chopped down and stumps pulled from the ground or left in place and farmed around. Brush and shrubs were cleared with a grub (digging) hoe. Oxen, mules, and sometimes horses were used to pull homemade plows to break the ground. When a rock was hit, the plow often jerked out of the farmer’s control, hitting him in the leg or chest.

Some fields were “deadened” in preparation for future plowing or as a quick way to begin planting without the labor of chopping down and removing trees. First, a small strip of bark was removed around the trunk. Eventually the tree died, decayed, and fell over, often after a storm. Stout, pointed sticks, about five feet in length, were used to roll the logs from the field. “Log rollings” were festive occasions when neighbors helped clear fields and shared good food and merriment.

Making a field in the fertile bottomlands was relatively easy compared to farming a terrace-like mountain “bench” made up of rocks and poor soil. William Harrison Collins, who was born in Newton County in the late 1880s, recalled his father Searl’s farm. “Oh that land on the Buffalo was rich! My father owned what he called the bench field on the west side of the creek; the sun’d shine there ever’ mornin,’ and that corn’d sure pop up!” Some farmers practiced crop rotation but many didn’t. When a field’s nutrients gave out after a few years, the land was abandoned and a new area cleared and plowed.

Joe Rich plowing a field with the help of his mule, “John the Baptist,” Newton County, Arkansas, mid 1930s

Joe Rich plowing a field with the help of his mule, “John the Baptist,” Newton County, mid 1930s. Opal or Ernest Nicholson, photographer. Katie McCoy Collection (S-95-181-76)

Before a crop could be planted, the land had to be readied. Prairies existed in Northwest Arkansas, especially in the western half, and it didn’t take much to till the ground. In forested areas, trees were chopped down and stumps pulled from the ground or left in place and farmed around. Brush and shrubs were cleared with a grub (digging) hoe. Oxen, mules, and sometimes horses were used to pull homemade plows to break the ground. When a rock was hit, the plow often jerked out of the farmer’s control, hitting him in the leg or chest.

Some fields were “deadened” in preparation for future plowing or as a quick way to begin planting without the labor of chopping down and removing trees. First, a small strip of bark was removed around the trunk. Eventually the tree died, decayed, and fell over, often after a storm. Stout, pointed sticks, about five feet in length, were used to roll the logs from the field. “Log rollings” were festive occasions when neighbors helped clear fields and shared good food and merriment.

Making a field in the fertile bottomlands was relatively easy compared to farming a terrace-like mountain “bench” made up of rocks and poor soil. William Harrison Collins, who was born in Newton County in the late 1880s, recalled his father Searl’s farm. “Oh that land on the Buffalo was rich! My father owned what he called the bench field on the west side of the creek; the sun’d shine there ever’ mornin,’ and that corn’d sure pop up!” Some farmers practiced crop rotation but many didn’t. When a field’s nutrients gave out after a few years, the land was abandoned and a new area cleared and plowed.

John Noel Pool (left) and George Stewart in a corn field, Thompson Switch area (near Elkins, Washington County), circa 1900. Mary Ellen Johnson Collection (S-90-48-31)

Corn was easy to plant and grow and was often the settlers’ first crop—along with pork, it was the mainstay of their diet. Growing crops required vigilance, not only from wandering livestock but from wildlife. Turkeys might get into the pea patch or squirrels in the corn.

Come harvest time the green leaves were pulled off and dried for animal fodder. The top of the stalk was lopped off. As the stalk dried, the ears were snapped off. “Roasting ears” (fresh corn) were boiled and eaten right away. Some folks cut off the corn kernels to dry. Others dried the corn with their outer shucks on the ears and stored them in the corn crib, a well-ventilated structure. The best corn was saved for human consumption; the rest was fed to the livestock.

Sometimes a shucking party was organized to process a large amount of corn. Games, music, and dancing made the labor-intensive, time-consuming chore more appealing. John Ed Watkins was born in the upper Crooked Creek Valley (Boone County) in 1854. He remembered a time when a jug of Parker’s brandy was hidden in a pile of corn to further motivate the huskers.

Corn shucks were used when making brooms, stuffing mattresses, and fashioning simple work hats or collars for plow animals. The cobs were burned as fuel or used in place of toilet paper.

John Noel Pool (left) and George Stewart in a corn field, Thompson Switch area (near Elkins, Washington County), circa 1900. Mary Ellen Johnson Collection (S-90-48-31)

Corn was easy to plant and grow and was often the settlers’ first crop—along with pork, it was the mainstay of their diet. Growing crops required vigilance, not only from wandering livestock but from wildlife. Turkeys might get into the pea patch or squirrels in the corn.

Come harvest time the green leaves were pulled off and dried for animal fodder. The top of the stalk was lopped off. As the stalk dried, the ears were snapped off. “Roasting ears” (fresh corn) were boiled and eaten right away. Some folks cut off the corn kernels to dry. Others dried the corn with their outer shucks on the ears and stored them in the corn crib, a well-ventilated structure. The best corn was saved for human consumption; the rest was fed to the livestock.

Sometimes a shucking party was organized to process a large amount of corn. Games, music, and dancing made the labor-intensive, time-consuming chore more appealing. John Ed Watkins was born in the upper Crooked Creek Valley (Boone County) in 1854. He remembered a time when a jug of Parker’s brandy was hidden in a pile of corn to further motivate the huskers.

Corn shucks were used when making brooms, stuffing mattresses, and fashioning simple work hats or collars for plow animals. The cobs were burned as fuel or used in place of toilet paper.

Henry Tarleton Lane feeding sorghum stalks into a mill, Kingston area (Madison County, Arkansas), circa 1953

Henry Tarleton Lane feeding sorghum stalks into a mill, Kingston area (Madison County), circa 1953. Cleburn Smith Collection (S-98-1-82)

Northwest Arkansas’ first settlers didn’t grow sorghum but relied on honey and maple syrup for their sweeteners. There is some speculation that sorghum didn’t come to this area until the 1860s. Once it did, it was heartily embraced. Not only was sorghum molasses the main sweetener for many, it is rich in iron and calcium.

In the early 1870s Ora Obenchain and her sister Zelah helped with the sorghum harvest in Viney Grove (Washington County). The girls’ job was to pull the leaves from the stalks and tie them into bundles for animal fodder. Then the stalks could be harvested to make “lasses” (sorghum molasses).

A wood sorghum mill was often shared by neighbors. When it was in operation, its creaking could be heard for miles. It was turned by a mule or horse walking in circles while harnessed to a long log pole called a sweep. The stalks were cut and fed into the mill. The liquid that came from the crushed stalks was placed in a large iron kettle and boiled over a fire until it was dark and syrupy. After it cooled, the finished molasses was strained by pouring it through a coarse cloth. In later years, a long, shallow metal pan was used to more effectively cook down the sorghum juice.

Henry Tarleton Lane feeding sorghum stalks into a mill, Kingston area (Madison County, Arkansas), circa 1953

Henry Tarleton Lane feeding sorghum stalks into a mill, Kingston area (Madison County), circa 1953. Cleburn Smith Collection (S-98-1-82)

Northwest Arkansas’ first settlers didn’t grow sorghum but relied on honey and maple syrup for their sweeteners. There is some speculation that sorghum didn’t come to this area until the 1860s. Once it did, it was heartily embraced. Not only was sorghum molasses the main sweetener for many, it is rich in iron and calcium.

In the early 1870s Ora Obenchain and her sister Zelah helped with the sorghum harvest in Viney Grove (Washington County). The girls’ job was to pull the leaves from the stalks and tie them into bundles for animal fodder. Then the stalks could be harvested to make “lasses” (sorghum molasses).

A wood sorghum mill was often shared by neighbors. When it was in operation, its creaking could be heard for miles. It was turned by a mule or horse walking in circles while harnessed to a long log pole called a sweep. The stalks were cut and fed into the mill. The liquid that came from the crushed stalks was placed in a large iron kettle and boiled over a fire until it was dark and syrupy. After it cooled, the finished molasses was strained by pouring it through a coarse cloth. In later years, a long, shallow metal pan was used to more effectively cook down the sorghum juice.

Fireplace, probably Washington County, early 1900s.

Fireplace, probably Washington County, early 1900s. Henrietta Holcomb Collection (S-94-179-112)

No matter how hot it might be outside, a fire was necessary year round to cook the family’s meals. A kettle hanging over the fire allowed the settlers to boil coffee, make stews, and heat water. Cornbread, cobbler, and biscuits were made in a footed Dutch oven. To create uniform heat, hot coals were placed underneath the oven and on top of its deeply rimmed lid. Other pots and pans were balanced carefully on the burning wood.

A hearty breakfast was necessary given the long work day ahead. Since every hour of light was needed to get the chores done, the womenfolk got up early to make the meal and have it on the table before daybreak. Margaret Woods’ ancestors came to Benton County in 1838. Their typical breakfast included:

“. . . fried meat [wild turkey, venison, or prairie chicken], . . . flanked by a large bowl of cream gravy . . . sausage or fried pork, and in summer and fall it likely would be chicken or ham and brown gravy; a dish of wild honey, always a dish of golden butter and plates of hot biscuit coming fresh from the old dutch oven every few minutes, with wild fruit in season and dried fruits in the winter, and at our house there was always a pitcher of sorghum. . . . [and] a huge coffee pot and large pitcher of milk.”

Dinner (what we would call lunch) was the main meal of the day. It might feature boiled ham, cracklin’ cornbread made with fried pigskin, sweet potatoes roasted in ashes, fried vegetables, poke sallet, and a fruit cobbler topped with a mixture of molasses and milk. In the evening folks ate the day’s leftovers or cornmeal mush and milk for supper. Wheat-flour biscuits were made on Sundays and special occasions. Frank Nance, who came to Madison County from Kentucky in 1857, recalled that corncobs were burned for soda ash, a leavener used when making quick (unyeasted) bread.

Fireplaces often caught on fire, especially those with chimneys made of sticks and clay. The logs were doused with water and water was thrown up the chimney and onto its exterior. If necessary, a stout stick was used to push the burning chimney away from the house.

Fireplace, probably Washington County, early 1900s.

Fireplace, probably Washington County, early 1900s. Henrietta Holcomb Collection (S-94-179-112)

No matter how hot it might be outside, a fire was necessary year round to cook the family’s meals. A kettle hanging over the fire allowed the settlers to boil coffee, make stews, and heat water. Cornbread, cobbler, and biscuits were made in a footed Dutch oven. To create uniform heat, hot coals were placed underneath the oven and on top of its deeply rimmed lid. Other pots and pans were balanced carefully on the burning wood.

A hearty breakfast was necessary given the long work day ahead. Since every hour of light was needed to get the chores done, the womenfolk got up early to make the meal and have it on the table before daybreak. Margaret Woods’ ancestors came to Benton County in 1838. Their typical breakfast included:

“. . . fried meat [wild turkey, venison, or prairie chicken], . . . flanked by a large bowl of cream gravy . . . sausage or fried pork, and in summer and fall it likely would be chicken or ham and brown gravy; a dish of wild honey, always a dish of golden butter and plates of hot biscuit coming fresh from the old dutch oven every few minutes, with wild fruit in season and dried fruits in the winter, and at our house there was always a pitcher of sorghum. . . . [and] a huge coffee pot and large pitcher of milk.”

Dinner (what we would call lunch) was the main meal of the day. It might feature boiled ham, cracklin’ cornbread made with fried pigskin, sweet potatoes roasted in ashes, fried vegetables, poke sallet, and a fruit cobbler topped with a mixture of molasses and milk. In the evening folks ate the day’s leftovers or cornmeal mush and milk for supper. Wheat-flour biscuits were made on Sundays and special occasions. Frank Nance, who came to Madison County from Kentucky in 1857, recalled that corncobs were burned for soda ash, a leavener used when making quick (unyeasted) bread.

Fireplaces often caught on fire, especially those with chimneys made of sticks and clay. The logs were doused with water and water was thrown up the chimney and onto its exterior. If necessary, a stout stick was used to push the burning chimney away from the house.

Sarah Harriet Ford Cooper Blaylock in her herb garden, Posey Mountain (near Garfield, Benton County, Arkansas), early 1900s.

Sarah Harriet Ford Cooper Blaylock in her herb garden, Posey Mountain (near Garfield, Benton County), early 1900s. Blaylock was a midwife and, like her father, an herb doctor. Benton County Historical Society/Dorothy Ellis Ross Collection (S-92-49-68)

A few medical doctors practiced on the frontier, but they had to ride many miles to tend their patients. Settlers often used plants and roots grown in a garden or gathered from the wild to treat their own ailments and those of their livestock.

Some folks were noted for their home remedies. Herb doctors like Sarah Blaylock, who came to the Garfield area from Tennessee in the 1850s, often treated her neighbors, sometimes under dangerous circumstances. One story tells of Sarah racing through the countryside one night, trying to stay balanced on her horse’s sidesaddle. She was fleeing a panther as it chased after her, leaping limb to limb through the trees.

Scores of plants were used to treat ailments. Sassafras tea was drunk in the springtime to thin the blood. Dried mullein leaves were smoked in a pipe to cure a cough. Horehound was turned into a cough syrup. Pawpaw seeds and Jimson weed were pulverized and fed to dogs and horses recovering from distemper. The juice from the Jimson weed stalk was used for sore eyes. Sprained joints required a poultice (covering) of boiled wheat bran and peach-tree leaves or red-oak bark. During the Civil War, some soldiers chewed on slippery elm bark to keep down their thirst for water.

Sarah Harriet Ford Cooper Blaylock in her herb garden, Posey Mountain (near Garfield, Benton County, Arkansas), early 1900s.

Sarah Harriet Ford Cooper Blaylock in her herb garden, Posey Mountain (near Garfield, Benton County), early 1900s. Blaylock was a midwife and, like her father, an herb doctor. Benton County Historical Society/Dorothy Ellis Ross Collection (S-92-49-68)

A few medical doctors practiced on the frontier, but they had to ride many miles to tend their patients. Settlers often used plants and roots grown in a garden or gathered from the wild to treat their own ailments and those of their livestock.

Some folks were noted for their home remedies. Herb doctors like Sarah Blaylock, who came to the Garfield area from Tennessee in the 1850s, often treated her neighbors, sometimes under dangerous circumstances. One story tells of Sarah racing through the countryside one night, trying to stay balanced on her horse’s sidesaddle. She was fleeing a panther as it chased after her, leaping limb to limb through the trees.

Scores of plants were used to treat ailments. Sassafras tea was drunk in the springtime to thin the blood. Dried mullein leaves were smoked in a pipe to cure a cough. Horehound was turned into a cough syrup. Pawpaw seeds and Jimson weed were pulverized and fed to dogs and horses recovering from distemper. The juice from the Jimson weed stalk was used for sore eyes. Sprained joints required a poultice (covering) of boiled wheat bran and peach-tree leaves or red-oak bark. During the Civil War, some soldiers chewed on slippery elm bark to keep down their thirst for water.

Young boys feeding dried corn to chickens, possibly Boston area (Madison County, Arkansas), 1900s–1910s.

Young boys feeding dried corn to chickens, possibly Boston area (Madison County), 1900s–1910s. Otto Bennett Collection (S-99-66-789)

While they were alive, chickens produced eggs. After they were killed their meat was cooked and eaten and their bones rendered into stock. Other poultry like geese and ducks were kept primarily for their feathers. Several times a year the down and the soft feathers of the neck and breast were plucked to make pillows and mattress ticks. Plucking day often resembled a mini-snowfall.

Chickens roamed the farmyard. Sometimes they were penned up at night, but often they were allowed to roost in the lower limbs of shade trees to keep away from predators. Protecting livestock from wolves and wildcats was critical. James F. “Major” Keck was born at Witter (Madison County) in 1864. When he was a boy, his family “would pen our young calves up in the chimney corner, and lots of times we would have to get up during the night and beat the wolves off of them.”

Children worked as hard on the farm as did the adults. They fed animals, harvested food, cooked meals, hauled water, churned butter, plowed fields, spun thread, and chopped wood. Not only did they provide much-needed help, they learned the skills they would likely need as adults.

Young boys feeding dried corn to chickens, possibly Boston area (Madison County, Arkansas), 1900s–1910s.

Young boys feeding dried corn to chickens, possibly Boston area (Madison County), 1900s–1910s. Otto Bennett Collection (S-99-66-789)

While they were alive, chickens produced eggs. After they were killed their meat was cooked and eaten and their bones rendered into stock. Other poultry like geese and ducks were kept primarily for their feathers. Several times a year the down and the soft feathers of the neck and breast were plucked to make pillows and mattress ticks. Plucking day often resembled a mini-snowfall.

Chickens roamed the farmyard. Sometimes they were penned up at night, but often they were allowed to roost in the lower limbs of shade trees to keep away from predators. Protecting livestock from wolves and wildcats was critical. James F. “Major” Keck was born at Witter (Madison County) in 1864. When he was a boy, his family “would pen our young calves up in the chimney corner, and lots of times we would have to get up during the night and beat the wolves off of them.”

Children worked as hard on the farm as did the adults. They fed animals, harvested food, cooked meals, hauled water, churned butter, plowed fields, spun thread, and chopped wood. Not only did they provide much-needed help, they learned the skills they would likely need as adults.

Tellitha Patton Light (bottom), Robert Light, and their daughter Annie Light storing hay in the barn loft, Pleasant Hill township (Newton County, Arkansas), early 1900s.

Tellitha Patton Light (bottom), Robert Light, and their daughter Annie Light storing hay in the barn loft, Pleasant Hill township (Newton County), early 1900s. Cora Humble Collection (S-88-135-10)

Livestock were fed all sorts of things. Salt was placed in troughs made from hollowed-out logs to keep cattle healthy. Horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and mules roamed the fields and forests during the day to graze. In the springtime the nearby woods could be set on fire, killing the undergrowth and allowing tender grasses to emerge. During the winter, cattle, horses, and mules ate fodder, the dried leaves and stalks from plants like corn and sorghum. Hay was a type of fodder, made from dry grasses.

Folks knew to “make hay while the sun shines.” When a dry period was expected, grass was cut and laid in loose windrows (lines) in the field. During the day it dried and at night it was gathered together to protect it from dew. Hay took several sunny days to dry. Once it was ready, the hay was stacked outdoors in large mounds or placed in a barn with the other animal fodder. If it wasn’t fully dried, heat from the decaying plant material caused the pile to catch on fire.

Tellitha Patton Light (bottom), Robert Light, and their daughter Annie Light storing hay in the barn loft, Pleasant Hill township (Newton County), early 1900s. Cora Humble Collection (S-88-135-10)

Livestock were fed all sorts of things. Salt was placed in troughs made from hollowed-out logs to keep cattle healthy. Horses, cattle, sheep, pigs, and mules roamed the fields and forests during the day to graze. In the springtime the nearby woods could be set on fire, killing the undergrowth and allowing tender grasses to emerge. During the winter, cattle, horses, and mules ate fodder, the dried leaves and stalks from plants like corn and sorghum. Hay was a type of fodder, made from dry grasses.

Folks knew to “make hay while the sun shines.” When a dry period was expected, grass was cut and laid in loose windrows (lines) in the field. During the day it dried and at night it was gathered together to protect it from dew. Hay took several sunny days to dry. Once it was ready, the hay was stacked outdoors in large mounds or placed in a barn with the other animal fodder. If it wasn’t fully dried, heat from the decaying plant material caused the pile to catch on fire.

William Loddie Karnes slopping the hogs, West Fork (Washington County, Arkansas), early 1900s

William Loddie Karnes slopping the hogs, West Fork (Washington County), 1900s. Pody Gay Collection (S-2007-63-2)

Hogs were easy to raise, contributing to the settlers’ primary diet of “hog and hominy” (corn). They were turned out into the forest most of the year and left to graze on their own, gobbling up mast— acorns and hickory nuts—come fall. William Harrison Collins, who was born in Newton County in the late 1880s, once remarked, “Oh them hogs would get fat when it come a big mast! You could butcher them right off the mast.” During the winter the hogs had to fend for themselves, when food was scarce.

For hogs kept close to home, farmers might call out to them in the evening and throw out some corn or swill (food scraps) to get them to return to the safety of their pen. Hogs chosen for slaughtering in the fall received swill, soured milk, corn, and other treats. They were fattened with lots of good food to bring their weight up and add flavor to the meat.

William Loddie Karnes slopping the hogs, West Fork (Washington County, Arkansas), early 1900s

William Loddie Karnes slopping the hogs, West Fork (Washington County), 1900s. Pody Gay Collection (S-2007-63-2)

Hogs were easy to raise, contributing to the settlers’ primary diet of “hog and hominy” (corn). They were turned out into the forest most of the year and left to graze on their own, gobbling up mast— acorns and hickory nuts—come fall. William Harrison Collins, who was born in Newton County in the late 1880s, once remarked, “Oh them hogs would get fat when it come a big mast! You could butcher them right off the mast.” During the winter the hogs had to fend for themselves, when food was scarce.

For hogs kept close to home, farmers might call out to them in the evening and throw out some corn or swill (food scraps) to get them to return to the safety of their pen. Hogs chosen for slaughtering in the fall received swill, soured milk, corn, and other treats. They were fattened with lots of good food to bring their weight up and add flavor to the meat.

William Henry Ogden (left) and Zeel, Huntsville (Madison County,Arkansas), May 1907.

William Henry Ogden (left) and Zeel, Huntsville (Madison County), May 1907. The mules, “Peel” and “Grey,” each weighed over 1,000 pounds. Gloria Sisk Collection (S-85-277-60)

Most settlers came by ox-drawn wagon as oxen are more powerful than horses or mules. Families and neighbors often traveled together, bringing with them all their worldly goods—including their  enslaved workers. Sometime around 1850 baby Adeline Blakely was brought to the Prairie Grove area (Washington County) from Tennessee. Although she was too young to remember the journey, she grew up hearing stories about how rivers were crossed and roads made for the wagons.

Bernice Karnes recalled a story about her ancestor Eli Bloyed’s 1820s trip to what is now West Fork (Washington County). Everything the family owned was placed into a two-wheel, ox-drawn cart. Careful of their resources as a trail was blazed to their new home, “the mother said that she walked behind the cart and was careful to pick up every grain of corn that was dropped.”

Some families, like the Lattas of South Carolina, planned ahead, bringing with them such things as doors, windows, and milled lumber for floors for their Vineyard (near Evansville, Washington County) home. Ora Obenchain remembered her family’s 1870 trip from Texas. Six oxen pulled their covered wagon. “Everything was put in the big wagon, the big spinning wheel, flax spinning wheel, and all except the trundle bed and the bees. The food chest was placed to the front so it could be taken out when we camped.” The family had intended to go to Missouri, but the snowy weather was hard on the oxen, so the Obenchains ended up settling in Viney Grove (Washington County).

Farm wagons were used to haul hay and grain from the field, were taken into town to buy or sell goods, or used to transport families to brush-arbor meetings (outdoor church services) and community events like quilting bees and house raisings.

William Henry Ogden (left) and Zeel, Huntsville (Madison County,Arkansas), May 1907.

William Henry Ogden (left) and Zeel, Huntsville (Madison County), May 1907. The mules, “Peel” and “Grey,” each weighed over 1,000 pounds. Gloria Sisk Collection (S-85-277-60)

Most settlers came by ox-drawn wagon as oxen are more powerful than horses or mules. Families and neighbors often traveled together, bringing with them all their worldly goods—including their enslaved workers. Sometime around 1850 baby Adeline Blakely was brought to the Prairie Grove area (Washington County) from Tennessee. Although she was too young to remember the journey, she grew up hearing stories about how rivers were crossed and roads made for the wagons.

Bernice Karnes recalled a story about her ancestor Eli Bloyed’s 1820s trip to what is now West Fork (Washington County). Everything the family owned was placed into a two-wheel, ox-drawn cart. Careful of their resources as a trail was blazed to their new home, “the mother said that she walked behind the cart and was careful to pick up every grain of corn that was dropped.”

Some families, like the Lattas of South Carolina, planned ahead, bringing with them such things as doors, windows, and milled lumber for floors for their Vineyard (near Evansville, Washington County) home. Ora Obenchain remembered her family’s 1870 trip from Texas. Six oxen pulled their covered wagon. “Everything was put in the big wagon, the big spinning wheel, flax spinning wheel, and all except the trundle bed and the bees. The food chest was placed to the front so it could be taken out when we camped.” The family had intended to go to Missouri, but the snowy weather was hard on the oxen, so the Obenchains ended up settling in Viney Grove (Washington County).

Farm wagons were used to haul hay and grain from the field, were taken into town to buy or sell goods, or used to transport families to brush-arbor meetings (outdoor church services) and community events like quilting bees and house raisings.

Men building a split-rail fence, possibly Witter Community (Madison County, Arkansas), 1920s–1930s.

Men building a split-rail fence, possibly Witter Community (Madison County), 1920s–1930s. Otto Bennett Collection (S-99-66-793)

Fences were important, not so much for marking boundaries as for keeping livestock and wildlife away from the crops. Fences also penned up farm animals close to home, safe from predators. A family needed everything they raised to keep them fed throughout the year.

When a settler was first starting out, he might make a crude fence of uprooted shrubs and brush. Later a split-rail fence was built. After the log was cracked on the larger end with an axe, an iron wedge was driven into the opening with a heavy hammer-like maul. A hardwood wedge called a “glut” replaced the iron wedge, which was moved further and further down, until the log was split. Rail-splitting chores were often shared by neighbors. Jonas Gilbert Berry, who came to Huntsville (Madison County) from Texas in 1867, spoke of split-rail parties with dancing and barbeques.

The zigzag nature of a split-rail fence meant that it was easily constructed without nails or pins. First, a couple of posts were driven into the ground to hold the fence’s ends in place. Then came a line of rails which rested on the ground. More rails were laid on top, criss-crossing at the corners, until the desired height was reached. Rails needed to be perfectly balanced, with equal angles at the crossings. The sharper the angle, the stronger the fence. Still, the fence was easily tumbled, requiring constant maintenance.

Mary Jane McCurdy Weaver of Fayetteville (Washington County) recalled a time in 1878 when her husband Columbus noticed that a fence was down on her father’s property, which had been rented by another family. The stock had trampled the crop and eaten the grain. He repaired the fence and went to confront the neighbors, telling them that if they couldn’t maintain the fence, they would have to leave. One of the men picked up a breast yoke from a wagon and hit Columbus in the head. He made it home but died a few hours later.

Men building a split-rail fence, possibly Witter Community (Madison County, Arkansas), 1920s–1930s.

Men building a split-rail fence, possibly Witter Community (Madison County), 1920s–1930s. Otto Bennett Collection (S-99-66-793)

Fences were important, not so much for marking boundaries as for keeping livestock and wildlife away from the crops. Fences also penned up farm animals close to home, safe from predators. A family needed everything they raised to keep them fed throughout the year.

When a settler was first starting out, he might make a crude fence of uprooted shrubs and brush. Later a split-rail fence was built. After the log was cracked on the larger end with an axe, an iron wedge was driven into the opening with a heavy hammer-like maul. A hardwood wedge called a “glut” replaced the iron wedge, which was moved further and further down, until the log was split. Rail-splitting chores were often shared by neighbors. Jonas Gilbert Berry, who came to Huntsville (Madison County) from Texas in 1867, spoke of split-rail parties with dancing and barbeques.

The zigzag nature of a split-rail fence meant that it was easily constructed without nails or pins. First, a couple of posts were driven into the ground to hold the fence’s ends in place. Then came a line of rails which rested on the ground. More rails were laid on top, criss-crossing at the corners, until the desired height was reached. Rails needed to be perfectly balanced, with equal angles at the crossings. The sharper the angle, the stronger the fence. Still, the fence was easily tumbled, requiring constant maintenance.

Mary Jane McCurdy Weaver of Fayetteville (Washington County) recalled a time in 1878 when her husband Columbus noticed that a fence was down on her father’s property, which had been rented by another family. The stock had trampled the crop and eaten the grain. He repaired the fence and went to confront the neighbors, telling them that if they couldn’t maintain the fence, they would have to leave. One of the men picked up a breast yoke from a wagon and hit Columbus in the head. He made it home but died a few hours later.

Heagerty family members demonstrating the steps needed to spin cotton, Cave Springs (Benton County, Arkansas), about 1900.

Heagerty family members demonstrating the steps needed to spin cotton, Cave Springs (Benton County), about 1900. From right: removing the seeds, carding the fibers, spinning the thread, and winding it on a reel. Jerry Ritter Collection (S-2004-20-6)

Once cotton plants matured, the soft, fluffy seed heads or bolls were harvested. “Finger picking” the seeds from the bolls was difficult, but necessary for the cotton fibers to be carded (combed) into alignment and formed into a roll. The roll was then carefully spun into thread or yarn. Loreta Hester Roberts, who was born near Fayetteville (Washington County) in 1858, remembered that when she first started to spin as a young girl, she was too short to reach the spindle. So a floorboard was removed and the spinning wheel lowered.

The color of the finished material ranged from cream to brown if the fiber was left in its natural state. It could also be dyed with plant materials such as sumac berries (light red), walnut hulls (dark brown or black), and red-oak bark (tan or black). Minerals like alum, sometimes found in caves, were used to fix the colors, making them less prone to “bleeding” when the fabrics were washed.

Heagerty family members demonstrating the steps needed to spin cotton, Cave Springs (Benton County, Arkansas), about 1900.

Heagerty family members demonstrating the steps needed to spin cotton, Cave Springs (Benton County), about 1900. From right: removing the seeds, carding the fibers, spinning the thread, and winding it on a reel. Jerry Ritter Collection (S-2004-20-6)

Once cotton plants matured, the soft, fluffy seed heads or bolls were harvested. “Finger picking” the seeds from the bolls was difficult, but necessary for the cotton fibers to be carded (combed) into alignment and formed into a roll. The roll was then carefully spun into thread or yarn. Loreta Hester Roberts, who was born near Fayetteville (Washington County) in 1858, remembered that when she first started to spin as a young girl, she was too short to reach the spindle. So a floorboard was removed and the spinning wheel lowered.

The color of the finished material ranged from cream to brown if the fiber was left in its natural state. It could also be dyed with plant materials such as sumac berries (light red), walnut hulls (dark brown or black), and red-oak bark (tan or black). Minerals like alum, sometimes found in caves, were used to fix the colors, making them less prone to “bleeding” when the fabrics were washed.

Erwin family members and others building a log cabin, Hilltop Community (Boone County, Arkansas), 1913.

Erwin family members and others building a log cabin, Hilltop Community (Boone County), 1913. Steve Erwin Collection (S-97-144-50)

The new settler looked for big, tall, oak trees as close as possible to his future homesite. After chopping them down and cutting them to the proper length, he squared the edges. To guide the log’s shaping, a straight line was snapped onto it by means of a twist of heavy thread dipped in pokeberry juice. Shallow cuts were made along the log’s width, using a chopping axe. A broad axe was used to “slab off” the material between the cuts.

Notched ends locked the timbers together at the corners. Some communities had “notchers,” skilled men who were called upon to do this exacting job. The gaps (“chinks”) between the timbers were sometimes filled with wood for added insulation before being filled with clay chinking. The pitched roof was generally covered with boards held down with rocks, ridgepoles, or other boards. Nails were expensive and scarce.

A doorway and maybe a window or two were cut out of the logs and covered with wood shutters attached by leather straps. Windows could be covered with a piece of oiled deerskin which kept out the wind while letting in a little light. Glass windows were a later luxury, although a few early settlers had them. The Rev. Andrew Buchanan installed one at his home in Cane Hill (Washington County) in the 1830s. It didn’t last long. Family legend has it that a curious Native American, who had never before encountered glass, accidently stuck his head through the window as he tried to watch a young girl move about the room.

The floor might be packed soil or made of puncheons, thick slabs of half-dressed logs with one flat surface. If the builder had ready access to large, flat stones from a rock outcropping, a stone chimney was built. Otherwise the chimney was made from thick, notched sticks and clay, much like the house itself. The inside of the chimney was lined thickly with clay to help keep the wood from catching on fire. A large hearthstone was set in the floor.

Erwin family members and others building a log cabin, Hilltop Community (Boone County), 1913. Steve Erwin Collection (S-97-144-50)

The new settler looked for big, tall, oak trees as close as possible to his future homesite. After chopping them down and cutting them to the proper length, he squared the edges. To guide the log’s shaping, a straight line was snapped onto it by means of a twist of heavy thread dipped in pokeberry juice. Shallow cuts were made along the log’s width, using a chopping axe. A broad axe was used to “slab off” the material between the cuts.

Notched ends locked the timbers together at the corners. Some communities had “notchers,” skilled men who were called upon to do this exacting job. The gaps (“chinks”) between the timbers were sometimes filled with wood for added insulation before being filled with clay chinking. The pitched roof was generally covered with boards held down with rocks, ridgepoles, or other boards. Nails were expensive and scarce.

A doorway and maybe a window or two were cut out of the logs and covered with wood shutters attached by leather straps. Windows could be covered with a piece of oiled deerskin which kept out the wind while letting in a little light. Glass windows were a later luxury, although a few early settlers had them. The Rev. Andrew Buchanan installed one at his home in Cane Hill (Washington County) in the 1830s. It didn’t last long. Family legend has it that a curious Native American, who had never before encountered glass, accidently stuck his head through the window as he tried to watch a young girl move about the room.

The floor might be packed soil or made of puncheons, thick slabs of half-dressed logs with one flat surface. If the builder had ready access to large, flat stones from a rock outcropping, a stone chimney was built. Otherwise the chimney was made from thick, notched sticks and clay, much like the house itself. The inside of the chimney was lined thickly with clay to help keep the wood from catching on fire. A large hearthstone was set in the floor.

Boy at a well, Prairie Grove (Washington County, Arkansas), about 1909.

Boy at a well, Prairie Grove (Washington County), about 1909. Bob Besom Collection (S-82-170-62)

A good source of water was crucial. The first settlers chose the best land, with a river or steady spring. Later settlers had to dig wells by hand. They might “water-witch” out a spot for a good well by taking a forked peach-tree limb and holding it level with the ground. As the dowser walked around, the stick would point down towards an underground water source.

Digging a well was tough work. One man dug, filling up a bucket with soil and stones, while another used a rope and pulley to haul out the bucket and dump its contents. Once the water table was found, the well was lined with flat stones and a structure built to haul out buckets of water.

If water wasn’t close to the house it had to be hauled daily—a tedious and strenuous chore—and stored in a wood trough or large barrel. Not only did the well provide water for cooking, drinking, and cleaning, but some foods were kept cool by being suspended in its depths. During the Civil War, retreating soldiers or bushwhackers often dropped dead animals into wells to make the water unfit to drink.

Boy at a well, Prairie Grove (Washington County, Arkansas), about 1909.

Boy at a well, Prairie Grove (Washington County), about 1909. Bob Besom Collection (S-82-170-62)

A good source of water was crucial. The first settlers chose the best land, with a river or steady spring. Later settlers had to dig wells by hand. They might “water-witch” out a spot for a good well by taking a forked peach-tree limb and holding it level with the ground. As the dowser walked around, the stick would point down towards an underground water source.

Digging a well was tough work. One man dug, filling up a bucket with soil and stones, while another used a rope and pulley to haul out the bucket and dump its contents. Once the water table was found, the well was lined with flat stones and a structure built to haul out buckets of water.

If water wasn’t close to the house it had to be hauled daily—a tedious and strenuous chore—and stored in a wood trough or large barrel. Not only did the well provide water for cooking, drinking, and cleaning, but some foods were kept cool by being suspended in its depths. During the Civil War, retreating soldiers or bushwhackers often dropped dead animals into wells to make the water unfit to drink.

James David Hall (left) with his father Ephram Riley Hall, Springdale (Washington County, Arkansas), 1910s-1920s.

James David Hall (left) with his father Ephram Riley Hall, Springdale, 1910s–1920s. Bonnie Watkins Collection (S-86-303-27)

Chopping firewood was an endless chore. A fire was needed everyday to cook food and boil water for washing clothes, dishes, and people. In the wintertime, the fireplace was the only source of heat. An extra supply of logs had to be laid up in anticipation of snowy weather, when people stayed indoors for days at a time. Special chores like making soap or scalding hogs meant that a fire was also needed in the yard.

“Friction matches” were expensive so at the end of the evening coals were banked in the fireplace and covered with ashes, to be fanned into life come morning. If the fire went out one of the children might be sent to the neighbor’s house for coals. Or a knife could be scraped against a piece of flint to strike a spark over cotton lint or a bit of crumbled paper.

James David Hall (left) with his father Ephram Riley Hall, Springdale (Washington County, Arkansas), 1910s-1920s.

James David Hall (left) with his father Ephram Riley Hall, Springdale, 1910s–1920s. Bonnie Watkins Collection (S-86-303-27)

Chopping firewood was an endless chore. A fire was needed everyday to cook food and boil water for washing clothes, dishes, and people. In the wintertime, the fireplace was the only source of heat. An extra supply of logs had to be laid up in anticipation of snowy weather, when people stayed indoors for days at a time. Special chores like making soap or scalding hogs meant that a fire was also needed in the yard.

“Friction matches” were expensive so at the end of the evening coals were banked in the fireplace and covered with ashes, to be fanned into life come morning. If the fire went out one of the children might be sent to the neighbor’s house for coals. Or a knife could be scraped against a piece of flint to strike a spark over cotton lint or a bit of crumbled paper.

Rebecca Smith making soap, Cove Creek (near Prairie Grove, Washington County), 1930s or early 1940s. Linda S. Skelton Collection (S-91-157-14)

Soap making was a springtime chore. Meat scraps and the cracklings left over from lard rendering were mixed with lye, made by running water through fireplace ashes stored in an ash hopper. The strength of the lye was tested by seeing if it would strip the barbs from a feather or float an egg or an ear of dried corn. The ingredients were carefully boiled down in a large iron kettle placed over a fire outdoors. Most settlers made soft soap (colored brown from the lye) because the salt needed to make hard bars was expensive. Soft soap was kept in a barrel or in a trough made from a tree trunk.

Soap was used to clean everything—people, clothing, furniture, and household goods. Water used to wash dishes was used again to scrub floors. Furniture was cleaned with soap and ashes and brought outside to dry. Clothes and other textiles were boiled in a kettle of water or wetted in a stream. After the soap was rubbed onto the clothing, the dirt was pounded or scrubbed out of them. Clothing was rinsed and left to dry on fences, bushes, and low-hanging tree limbs.

Like many homesteading chores, washing clothes was a strenuous task. In March 1859, Mary Jane Froshour Hoffman of Evansville (Washington County) wrote a letter to her family describing the death of her sister, Martha Froshour Bailey:

“She washed on Monday and in the morning when she was fixing to wash her kettle [she] . . . carried it to the branch and her hurt herself . . . She said she never felt well after she carried it. But went on and done her washing. About eight o’clock that night she was taken with very severe pains in her bowels so that she could not move herself in the bed . . . When he come [the doctor] done all he could, but to no purpose. . . . We think she broke some of her insides lifting the kettle . . .”

 

Rebecca Smith making soap, Washington County, Arkansas, circa 1935

Rebecca Smith making soap, Cove Creek (near Prairie Grove, Washington County), 1930s or early 1940s. Linda S. Skelton Collection (S-91-157-14)

Soap making was a springtime chore. Meat scraps and the cracklings left over from lard rendering were mixed with lye, made by running water through fireplace ashes stored in an ash hopper. The strength of the lye was tested by seeing if it would strip the barbs from a feather or float an egg or an ear of dried corn. The ingredients were carefully boiled down in a large iron kettle placed over a fire outdoors. Most settlers made soft soap (colored brown from the lye) because the salt needed to make hard bars was expensive. Soft soap was kept in a barrel or in a trough made from a tree trunk.

Soap was used to clean everything—people, clothing, furniture, and household goods. Water used to wash dishes was used again to scrub floors. Furniture was cleaned with soap and ashes and brought outside to dry. Clothes and other textiles were boiled in a kettle of water or wetted in a stream. After the soap was rubbed onto the clothing, the dirt was pounded or scrubbed out of them. Clothing was rinsed and left to dry on fences, bushes, and low-hanging tree limbs.

Like many homesteading chores, washing clothes was a strenuous task. In March 1859, Mary Jane Froshour Hoffman of Evansville (Washington County) wrote a letter to her family describing the death of her sister, Martha Froshour Bailey:

“She washed on Monday and in the morning when she was fixing to wash her kettle [she] . . . carried it to the branch and her hurt herself . . . She said she never felt well after she carried it. But went on and done her washing. About eight o’clock that night she was taken with very severe pains in her bowels so that she could not move herself in the bed… When he come [the doctor] done all he could, but to no purpose. . . . We think she broke some of her insides lifting the kettle . . .”

 

Credits

Arkansas Gazette. “Emigration.” 2-2-1830.

———. “Emigration.” 10-11-1830.

Benton County Pioneer. “Pioneering in Northwest Arkansas: Memoirs of the Late Miss Margaret Woods.” Vol. 2, No. 2 (January 1957).

Besom, Patty and Bob. “How the Homestead Act Helped Settle the Ozark Hills.” Northwest Arkansas Times, 10-1-2006.

Boyd, Don. “Now and Then.” Ozark Sportsman, May 1972.

Chastain, Elsia Butler. “Memories of Benton County in the Early Nineteen Hundreds.” Benton County Pioneer, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Summer 1973).

Dick, Everett. The Dixie Frontier: A Social History. University of Oklahoma Press: Norman, 1948 (1993 reprint).

Dillard, Tom. “Ice, Ice, Baby.” Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, 8-15-2010.

Duncan, Clara and James Boshears. “Meadow Valley School Paper—1934.” Flashback, Vol. 5, No. 2 (April 1955).

Flashback. “The Memoirs of Col. James P. Neal.” Vol. V, No. 4 (August 1955).

Gabler, Ina. “Lovely’s Purchase and Lovely County.” Arkansas Historical Quarterly, Vol. XIX, No. 1 (Spring 1960).

Hackbarth, Mark Robert. The Effect of Kinship on Land Choice in Washington County, Arkansas 1830-1850. Master of Arts thesis, University of Arkansas, August 1980.

Hogue, Wayman. Back Yonder. Minton, Balch & Company: New York, 1932.

Huffman, Mary Jane Freshour. Unpublished letter, Evansville, Washington County, 2-11-1859. Shiloh Museum of Ozark History research library.

Hutcheon, Harold. “Goose Picking Time.” Washington County Observer, 6-28-1984.

Jines, Billie. “Old Photo Depicts a Once-Annual Job of the Area Being Undertaken.” Springdale News, 12-14-1984.

Kennedy, Steele T. “Nature’s Cooler.” Arkansas Democrat, 7-3-1960.

McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. Scribner: New York, 2004.

McNeil, W. K. and William M. Clements, editors. An Arkansas Folklore Sourcebook. University of Arkansas Press: Fayetteville, 1992.

McNeil, W. K. Ozark Country. University Press of Mississippi: Jackson, 1995.

Miller, C. J. “Lovely County.” Encyclopedia of Arkansas. (accessed 3/2011)

Musgrave, Bonita. A Study of the Home and Local Crafts of the Pioneers of Washington County. Master of Science thesis, Arkansas State Teachers College, 1929.

Neal, Col. James Preston Sr. “Migration and Settlement of My Stepfather and Family: My First Day and First Ramble in the Valley.” Flashback, Vol. V, No. 3 (June 1955).

Neal, Joseph C. “Pioneer Trails to Washington County: From the Early Days to the Eve of the Civil War.” History of Washington County, Arkansas. Shiloh Museum of Ozark History: Springdale, 1989.

Obenchain, Ora. “The Obenchains in Arkansas: Part 1—Viney Grove.” Flashback, Vol. 32, No. 3 (August 1982).

Robison, E. Jane Early and Jeri Robinson-Turner, editors. “Marriage to Columbus Collins.” Flashback, Vol. 42, No. 2 (May 1992).

Seavy, Susan. “A Visit with Harrison and Rosie Collins.” Madison County Record, 9-29-1983.

Sizemore, Jean. Ozark Vernacular Houses: A Study of Rural Homeplaces in the Arkansas Ozarks, 1830–1930. University of Arkansas Press: Fayetteville, 1994.

Springfield-Green County Library District. “Agriculture in the Ozarks.” Community and Conflict: The Impact of the Civil War in the Ozarks.  (accessed 2/2011)

Sutton, Bob E. Early Days in the Ozarks. Times-Echo Press: Eureka Springs, 1950.

Waterman, Todd. “Rail Fences: Their History and Construction.” Bittersweet, Fall 1981.

Wolf, John Quincy. Life in the Leatherwoods: An Ozark Boyhood Remembered. August House: Little Rock, 1988.

Works Progress Administration. Early Settlers’ Personal History Questionnaire, Historical Records Survey. Interview with J. L. Auslam, recorded by Samuel M. Auslam, Madison County, 9-7-1939. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with Jonas Gilbert Berry, recorded by Samuel M. Auslam, Madison County, 8-4-1939. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with Anna Walhquist Canaday, recorded by Samuel M. Auslam, Madison County, 7-28-1939. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with Lon Garrett, recorded by Samuel M. Auslam, Madison County, 8-9-1939. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with Charles P. Hudson, recorded by Samuel M. Auslam, Madison County, 9-14-1939. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with Mary Ann Jameson, recorded by Iuka J. Moore, Boone County, 1-16-1941. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with Frank Nance, recorded by Samuel M. Auslam, Madison County, 7-13-1939. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with John Orr, recorded by Gussie Garland Norton, Boone County, undated (circa 1940). Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with John S. McCarver Pass, recorded by Jewel S. Hensley, Boone County, 4-2-1941. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with Loreta Hester Roberts, Washington County, undated (circa 1940). Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with Henry L. Thompson, recorded by Samuel M. Auslam, Madison County, 7-26-1939. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with John Ed Watkins, recorded by M. O. Penix, Boone County, 1-30-1941. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with J. R. Withrow, recorded by Samuel M. Auslam, Madison County, 7-19-1939. Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

———. Interview with Laura Tresner Woods, Washington County, undated (circa 1940). Special Collections Department, University of Arkansas Libraries.

Prehistoric Ozarks

Prehistoric Ozarks

Core Exhibit

Bluff shelter exhibit, Shiloh Museum of Ozark HistoryIndians first came to the Ozarks some 15,000 years ago, near the end of the Ice Age. They found a wet, cold climate and hills that were covered with spruce and pine trees. These prehistoric people did not settle down in one place, but instead roamed throughout the Ozarks pursuing big game animals like the mastodon and musk ox, as well as smaller game such as antelope and squirrel.

Over the next 2,000 years the climate in the Ozarks became warmer and drier. The large Ice Age animals became extinct, and the spruce and pine trees gave way to oak-hickory forests. These changes led to a new way of life for prehistoric Ozark Indians. The nomadic hunters settled down, and their diet began to include more plants, nuts, berries, and fish.

Diseases like smallpox and measles brought to America by Europeans may have led to the downfall of prehistoric Ozark Indians. By the time explorers and hunters made their way into Northwest Arkansas in the early 1800s, they found an area virtually uninhabited.

Bluff shelter exhibit, Shiloh Museum of Ozark History

Indians first came to the Ozarks some 15,000 years ago, near the end of the Ice Age. They found a wet, cold climate and hills that were covered with spruce and pine trees. These prehistoric people did not settle down in one place, but instead roamed throughout the Ozarks pursuing big game animals like the mastodon and musk ox, as well as smaller game such as antelope and squirrel.

Over the next 2,000 years the climate in the Ozarks became warmer and drier. The large Ice Age animals became extinct, and the spruce and pine trees gave way to oak-hickory forests. These changes led to a new way of life for prehistoric Ozark Indians. The nomadic hunters settled down, and their diet began to include more plants, nuts, berries, and fish.

Diseases like smallpox and measles brought to America by Europeans may have led to the downfall of prehistoric Ozark Indians. By the time explorers and hunters made their way into Northwest Arkansas in the early 1800s, they found an area virtually uninhabited.

Silver Screen Memories

Silver Screen Memories

Online Exhibit

Northwest Arkansas was likely first seen nationally on the big screen in the 1939 movie Jesse James, starring Tyrone Power and Henry Fonda. While only a small portion of the film was made locally, it was the first of many productions to showcase the area’s natural beauty and resources. Since then over two dozen motion picture and television productions have been filmed in the region, pumping money into the local economy, providing work for actors and crew, and offering a novel experience to star-struck residents.

Community Impact

Members of the Northwest Arkansas Motion Picture Commission look over its promotional materials, with souvenir hats from The Blue and the Gray. From left: Lee Zachary (special projects committee chairman), State Representative Bill Ramsey (commission chairman), and Phil Phillips Sr. (locations committee chairman), Springdale Chamber of Commerce, July 30, 1987. Charles Bickford, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 7-30-1987)

Movie fever can grip a community. Hundreds of area residents made the trek to southwest Missouri to watch the filming of Jesse James and hope for an autograph from matinee idol Tyrone Power. During the 1981 filming of The Blue and the Gray, one report said that about 10,000 people applied for jobs as extras and crew. When a press conference with actor Gregory Peck was scheduled, the Northwest Arkansas Times sent one reporter to cover it; three showed up.

The economic impact of filmmaking spreads far into the community, beyond the folks directly involved with a movie’s production. It was expected that restaurants and hotels would greatly benefit during the production of The Blue and the Gray, but an economic impact study showed that other businesses benefited as well, including lumber companies, dry cleaners, and car-rental agencies.

Films can cause property damage, despite the best intentions. While filming Fighting Mad in 1975, one man had his truck door accidentally torn off. He was compensated with $400 and a new engine. The historic Borden House at Prairie Grove Battlefield State Park received minor damage from an explosion in a new wing built specifically to be blown up for The Blue and the Gray. By the next day, the house was repaired and a donation of $5,000 offered towards its further restoration. It’s unclear if the money was received.

Sometimes storylines or cast and crew can rub folks the wrong way. Protests arose surrounding Pass the Ammo, a 1988 spoof about crooked televangelists filmed in Eureka Springs. Some pastors denounced it as full of “nudity, sex, obscenity, perversity, drugs, vulgarity, racism, and violence.” To keep it from being filmed, the Elna N. Smith Foundation, owners of the “Christ of the Ozarks” statue, had it draped in black plastic. When Frank and Jesse was filmed in 1993, one extra noted that everyone loved country singer and actor Randy Travis, but had less than kind words to say about star Rob Lowe.

Economic Impact

Attempts to lure motion picture and television productions to Arkansas began officially in 1979, when a part-time employee of the Arkansas Industrial Development Commission was assigned to work with prospective film crews.

When Columbia Pictures Television was deciding whether to shoot The Blue and the Gray in Kentucky or Arkansas, various individuals and entities worked to woo the production team to the state’s northwest corner. To transport executives to possible shooting locations, they arranged for airplanes from local poultry giant Hudson Farms and transportation companies Jones Truck Lines and Polar Express. Springdale funeral home director Charles Farmer lent limousines.

In 1982 the Northwest Arkansas Motion Picture Commission was formed by the chambers of commerce in Springdale, Rogers, Siloam Springs, Fayetteville, and Eureka Springs. It was created because of the economic impact of The Blue and the Gray and with the encouragement of CBS-TV and Columbia Pictures, which appreciated the area’s beauty and cooperative residents, and the economic advantage of filming here.

As a marketing entity, the commission worked to “keep [its] name in front of the people that make the decisions.” To that end it produced a brochure, helped find prospective shooting locations, and served as lobbyists, traveling to Hollywood to meet with movie-industry representatives. The commission was the first in the state; by 1987, about 50 similar organizations had sprung up. The commission closed its doors sometime in the 2000s due to lack of interest and sponsors.

State legislators jumped on the movie bandwagon in 1983, passing the Motion Picture Incentive Act. Known as “The Nickel Rebate,” filmmakers spending at a certain level received five cents back for every production dollar spent in the state. Arkansas was the first state to make such an offer; others soon followed.

Over the years laws were enacted and various state agencies created to promote film production, with varying degrees of success. Today, surrounding states offer better incentives, perhaps explaining why Arkansas’ film production has dropped in recent years.

Films Today

Small, independent films are being made in Northwest Arkansas such as Gordon Family Tree (2012) and Valley Inn (2014). To meet the demand for films and commercials, new businesses have sprung up, including talent and casting agencies and visual effects and post-production companies. In 2013 locals were recruited as extras and Razorback football fans for the movie Greater: The Brandon Burlsworth Story (2016).

Interest in local filmmaking and film festivals are on the rise. In 2014 Eureka Springs passed an ordinance providing economic incentives in the form of tax rebates to film, digital, and television productions. The ordinance made Eureka the first town in Arkansas to offer such a rebate. The area has had a few short-lived film festivals over the years. Currently, the longest running is the Fayetteville Film Festival. Begun in 2008, it works to showcase independent films in a community-oriented atmosphere. Newer festivals include the Eureka Springs Indie Film Festival, the Canted Angle Film Festival in Harrison, and the Bentonville Film Festival. The latter was co-founded in 2015 by actor Geena Davis in an effort to promote “underrepresented voices of diverse storytellers.” The festival quickly made its mark on the local landscape through increased tourism, marketing opportunities, and new businesses. After years without a movie theater, Bentonville is now home to the six-screen Skylight Cinema with rocking recliners and a full-service restaurant and bar. The festivals’ impact have encouraged several film production companies to set up shop, including Fayetteville’s Rockhill Studios in Fayetteville and Hiwasse’s Farm Studios and Intercut Productions.

Northwest Arkansas was likely first seen nationally on the big screen in the 1939 movie Jesse James, starring Tyrone Power and Henry Fonda. While only a small portion of the film was made locally, it was the first of many productions to showcase the area’s natural beauty and resources. Since then over two dozen motion picture and television productions have been filmed in the region, pumping money into the local economy, providing work for actors and crew, and offering a novel experience to star-struck residents.

Community Impact

Movie fever can grip a community. Hundreds of area residents made the trek to southwest Missouri to watch the filming of Jesse James and hope for an autograph from matinee idol Tyrone Power. During the 1981 filming of The Blue and the Gray, one report said that about 10,000 people applied for jobs as extras and crew. When a press conference with actor Gregory Peck was scheduled, the Northwest Arkansas Times sent one reporter to cover it; three showed up.

Members of the Northwest Arkansas Motion Picture Commission look over its promotional materials, with souvenir hats from The Blue and the Gray. From left: Lee Zachary (special projects committee chairman), State Representative Bill Ramsey (commission chairman), and Phil Phillips Sr. (locations committee chairman), Springdale Chamber of Commerce, July 30, 1987. Charles Bickford, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 7-30-1987)

The economic impact of filmmaking spreads far into the community, beyond the folks directly involved with a movie’s production. It was expected that restaurants and hotels would greatly benefit during the production of The Blue and the Gray, but an economic impact study showed that other businesses benefited as well, including lumber companies, dry cleaners, and car-rental agencies.

Films can cause property damage, despite the best intentions. While filming Fighting Mad in 1975, one man had his truck door accidentally torn off. He was compensated with $400 and a new engine. The historic Borden House at Prairie Grove Battlefield State Park received minor damage from an explosion in a new wing built specifically to be blown up for The Blue and the Gray. By the next day, the house was repaired and a donation of $5,000 offered towards its further restoration. It’s unclear if the money was received.

Sometimes storylines or cast and crew can rub folks the wrong way. Protests arose surrounding Pass the Ammo, a 1988 spoof about crooked televangelists filmed in Eureka Springs. Some pastors denounced it as full of “nudity, sex, obscenity, perversity, drugs, vulgarity, racism, and violence.” To keep it from being filmed, the Elna N. Smith Foundation, owners of the “Christ of the Ozarks” statue, had it draped in black plastic. When Frank and Jesse was filmed in 1993, one extra noted that everyone loved country singer and actor Randy Travis, but had less than kind words to say about star Rob Lowe.

Economic Impact

Attempts to lure motion picture and television productions to Arkansas began officially in 1979, when a part-time employee of the Arkansas Industrial Development Commission was assigned to work with prospective film crews.

When Columbia Pictures Television was deciding whether to shoot The Blue and the Gray in Kentucky or Arkansas, various individuals and entities worked to woo the production team to the state’s northwest corner. To transport executives to possible shooting locations, they arranged for airplanes from local poultry giant Hudson Farms and transportation companies Jones Truck Lines and Polar Express. Springdale funeral home director Charles Farmer lent limousines.

In 1982 the Northwest Arkansas Motion Picture Commission was formed by the chambers of commerce in Springdale, Rogers, Siloam Springs, Fayetteville, and Eureka Springs. It was created because of the economic impact of The Blue and the Gray and with the encouragement of CBS-TV and Columbia Pictures, which appreciated the area’s beauty and cooperative residents, and the economic advantage of filming here.

As a marketing entity, the commission worked to “keep [its] name in front of the people that make the decisions.” To that end it produced a brochure, helped find prospective shooting locations, and served as lobbyists, traveling to Hollywood to meet with movie-industry representatives. The commission was the first in the state; by 1987, about 50 similar organizations had sprung up. The commission closed its doors sometime in the 2000s due to lack of interest and sponsors.

State legislators jumped on the movie bandwagon in 1983, passing the Motion Picture Incentive Act. Known as “The Nickel Rebate,” filmmakers spending at a certain level received five cents back for every production dollar spent in the state. Arkansas was the first state to make such an offer; others soon followed.

Over the years laws were enacted and various state agencies created to promote film production, with varying degrees of success. Today, surrounding states offer better incentives, perhaps explaining why Arkansas’ film production has dropped in recent years.

Films Today

Small, independent films are being made in Northwest Arkansas such as Gordon Family Tree (2012) and Valley Inn (2014). To meet the demand for films and commercials, new businesses have sprung up, including talent and casting agencies and visual effects and post-production companies. In 2013 locals were recruited as extras and Razorback football fans for the movie Greater: The Brandon Burlsworth Story (2016).

Interest in local filmmaking and film festivals are on the rise. In 2014 Eureka Springs passed an ordinance providing economic incentives in the form of tax rebates to film, digital, and television productions. The ordinance made Eureka the first town in Arkansas to offer such a rebate. The area has had a few short-lived film festivals over the years. Currently, the longest running is the Fayetteville Film Festival. Begun in 2008, it works to showcase independent films in a community-oriented atmosphere. Newer festivals include the Eureka Springs Indie Film Festival, the Canted Angle Film Festival in Harrison, and the Bentonville Film Festival. The latter was co-founded in 2015 by actor Geena Davis in an effort to promote “underrepresented voices of diverse storytellers.” The festival quickly made its mark on the local landscape through increased tourism, marketing opportunities, and new businesses. After years without a movie theater, Bentonville is now home to the six-screen Skylight Cinema with rocking recliners and a full-service restaurant and bar. The festivals’ impact have encouraged several film production companies to set up shop, including Fayetteville’s Rockhill Studios in Fayetteville and Hiwasse’s Farm Studios and Intercut Productions.

Filmed in Northwest Arkansas

Jesse James (1939)
The thrilling tale of brothers Frank and Jesse James and how they turn to a life of crime after their mother is killed when she refused to sell her property to a ruthless railroad man.

Starring Tyrone Power, Henry Fonda, Nancy Kelly, Randolph Scott

Filmed August–October 1938, primarily in and around Pineville, Missouri; also Benton County, between Hiwasse and Gravette.

Henry Fonda as Frank James, on the set of Jesse James, Pineville, Missouri, 1938. Mary Lucile Lewis Yoe Collection (S-2002-51-14)

Carpenters, painters, wagon masters, and extras transformed Pineville, Missouri, into the fictional town of Liberty for the movie Jesse James. Wood planks, painted gray to simulate age, covered concrete sidewalks and hitching posts were installed. At one point, a large flock of guinea hens ruined a dramatic scene. Young boys were paid thirty-five cents per bird to round them up and move them away.

Fictional St. Louis Midland Railroad engine on the Frisco's Bentonville Branch, Benton County, Arkansas, 1938.

Fictional St. Louis Midland Railroad engine on the Frisco’s Bentonville Branch, Benton County, 1938. Marion E. Bayles Sr. Memorial Collection (S-85-49-25)

Some of the scenes featuring the fictional St. Louis Midland Railroad were filmed on the Bentonville branch of the St. Louis-San Francisco Railway between Hiwasse and Gravette. The Bentonville branch was ideal, because it had little traffic by the 1930s. Frisco rail cars and equipment were re-lettered especially for the movie.

Sightseers and film crew on the set of Jesse James, Pineville, Missouri, 1938. Jo Condra, photographer. Jim Morriss Collection (S-2014-81-5)

Over $200,000 was spent by the movie company and by an estimated 200,000 tourists, including some from Northwest Arkansas, who came to watch Hollywood stars in action. One story tells of hundreds of University of Arkansas students who neglected their classes to make the drive to Missouri. One young woman, Mary Margaret Bowen, was hoping to get heartthrob Tyrone Power’s autograph, but fainted as a result of the day’s heat and crowd. Luckily for her, Power came to the rescue, carrying her into the coach of the train, “where he patted her wrist and fanned her to recovery.”

 

Wonder Valley (1953)

The complicated tale of a young man, loved by two women, who needs money to improve his farm, only to receive a loan from a man whose son then steals the money.

Starring Gloria Jean, Lance Devro, Louise Larrimer, Walter Kingsford, Mirna Liles, Governor Sid McMath

Filmed September–October 1951 in Cave Springs (Lake Keith), Springdale (Hitchin’ Post Café), and Fayetteville (University of Arkansas).

Wonder Valley actors and extras at the Hitchin’ Post Café, Springdale, September 27, 1951. With actor John Fontaine (seated at front table, middle) and locals Betty Walker and Teena Carpenter (seated at back table, left and right, respectively), Wayne High (standing at back table), and U.S. Marine Corps Master Sergeants Paul Hodges (sitting at front table, with back to camera) and James Toopes (standing, far right). Teena Carpenter Collection (S-2004-57-1)

Viva Ruth Liles of Russellville, Arkansas, produced Wonder Valley (originally titled Seven Wonders), the first movie filmed entirely in the state. Liles hoped to establish a motion-picture production office in Arkansas, saying that movies made here would be less expensive than Hollywood and would showcase the area’s wonderful scenery. Filming and operations for Wonder Valley were based at Lake Keith, a tourism spot in Cave Springs that offered barracks-style buildings and a restaurant for cast and crew.

Shooting a dinner scene for

Shooting a dinner scene for Wonder Valley, Cave Springs, September 1951. Howard Clark, photographer. Caroline Price Clark Collection (S-2002-72-2478)

The film focused on the Wonder family and featured former child star Gloria Jean and actors Lance Devro, John Fontaine, and Walter Kingsford. Actors, crew, and community came together. Kingsford helped with a fundraising auction for the Springdale swimming pool. The Hollywood folks attended a pie supper to raise money for the Cave Springs fire department. Governor Sid McMath had a small role, playing himself. Several Springdale folks were used as extras when a scene was shot at the Hitchin’ Post Café on Emma Avenue. Locals were treated to “rushes” (screenings of unedited film) at the Victory Theatre in Rogers and the Apollo Theatre in Springdale.

Glenn Jones remembers when the film crew came to shoot a scene at Lake Keith. It was “all the locals talked about day and night.” He watched some of the filming but was “bored stiff,” wishing he was out playing in the fields and creeks. After his grandmother bought a “Lake Keith” postcard from an enterprising salesman, stars Gloria Jean and John Fontaine saw him with it and autographed it for him. Young Glenn “wasn’t impressed since [he] had never heard of either of them.”

Actors possibly rehearsing a scene for Wonder Valley in Colonel Meyer's Cave Springs home, Cave Springs, Arkansas, 1951

Actors possibly rehearsing a scene for Wonder Valley in Colonel Meyer’s Cave Springs home, September 1951. With Gretchen Steele of Springdale (seated) and Thelma Stroud Mischler of Cave Springs (standing, center), and actors Lance Devro (seated) and Lisa Abbott and Thurston Hall (standing left and right). Charlotte Steele Collection (S-2014-68)

The film was troubled from the start. Shooting locations and dates didn’t occur as announced. Producer Liles tried to interest local leaders in buying stock in her Wonder State Motion Picture Company to help fund the film’s production. While several thousands of dollars were said to have been raised in Springdale, Fayetteville folks remained skeptical. In October, filming halted when actors and technicians walked off the set, claiming they hadn’t been paid. Liles remarked that those reports weren’t true, as she headed off to Hollywood to raise funds. A few days later the motion picture company filed for bankruptcy. In 1952 the court bankruptcy trustee spoke with Liles who said “it will take considerable money to complete the picture,” but that she would do so.

The film had a few showings in Arkansas, Missouri, and California, and possibly elsewhere. It’s thought that the only known copy of the film was badly deteriorated and no longer exists.

Smoke in the Wind (1971)

The gripping tale of Civil War soldiers returning to their Ozarks home, only to find that their Confederate neighbors think that they fell in with Union forces during their time away.

Starring John Ashley, John Russell, Myron Healey, Walter Brennan

Filmed May 1971 in and around Winslow, including the Jones Ranch, Devil’s Den, and Lee Creek

Filming of

Visitors wander around the movie set of Smoke in the Wind, Winslow, May 6, 1971. Ken Good, photographer. Northwest Arkansas Times Collection (NWAT Box 24 71.1)

After co-producer Robert Hughes paid a visit to his brother in Fort Smith, he was so taken “with the beauty of Arkansas with fall colors” that he decided to make a movie in the area. Script problems for Smoke in the Wind led to the film being made in the spring, rather than the fall.

Several weeks were spent “face lifting” downtown Winslow, including Hugh Smith’s General Store, which was transformed into multiple storefronts such as a boot and saddle shop, livery (horse stable), saloon, feed-and-grain store, and blacksmith shop. The sets were built by the G. H. Construction Company of Fort Smith. Seen in the film is the old Jones homestead, described as a “turkey-trot type home with a full-length front port and central hallway.” It was located on Lee Creek about halfway between Lincoln and Van Buren.

Filming of

Visitors watch a funeral scene being filmed for Smoke in the Wind, Winslow, May 5, 1971. Charles Bickford, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 5-5-1971)

Hundreds of tourists came to watch the moviemaking and visit the set. The first scene filmed, that of a funeral at a country church, was made difficult by moving clouds which continually altered the brightness of the scene. Onlookers stood nearby, cameras in hand. Some of the actors stayed in Fort Smith while others were housed at Mt. Gaylor. Lunch was served in the cafeteria of the Winslow School where, on the first day of filming, the lunchroom workers were busy taking souvenir photos of actors and crew.

Walter Brennan signs autographs, Winslow, Arkansas, 1971

Veteran actor Walter Brennan signs autographs for fans on the set of Smoke in the Wind, Winslow, May 5, 1971. Charles Bickford, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 5-5-1971)

Fighting Mad (1975)

The thrilling tale of an Arkansas horse farmer who tries to fight off strip-mining interests, only to seek revenge once family members are killed.

Starring Peter Fonda, Gene Allen Franco, Harry Northup

Filmed October–November 1975 in Springdale (airport, Landmark Mobile Home Park), Fayetteville (Washington County Jail, Brenda’s Bigger Burgers, Swingin’ Door), Wyman, Bentonville (Joe Applegate house), Johnson (limestone quarry), and Greenland.

Peter Fonda on the set of Fighting Mad, near Springdale, Arkansas, 1975

Actors on the set of Fighting Mad, October 23, 1975. With John Doucette (second from left) and Gene Allen Franco and Peter Fonda (on right). Charles Bickford, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 10-23-1975)

When news of the movie Fighting Mad was announced, it was expected that 400 extras would be needed for the film, all to be cast locally. Gene Allen Franco of Springdale was cast as star Peter Fonda’s son. The eight-year-old worked on the set from dawn to dark, about four days a week. As a newspaper reporter put it, “Life for [Gino was] a collage of cameras, memorizing lines and hanging around with his friend Pete.”

Seventy-six-year-old Berslie Watson was discovered while having lunch “where the elderly people eat in Springdale.” Director Jonathan Demme “asked if I could ride a bike and run and I said I thought so.” She ran in one scene and was “thrilled to death” that the filmmaker got the take he wanted on her first try.

Filming of

Preparing to film a chase scene for Fighting Mad at the Springdale airport, with a soundman strapped to the hood of a car, November 2, 1975. Morris White, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 11-2-1975)

Third-graders from Washington Elementary School in Fayetteville were used in a scene involving a bus crashing into an autumnal pumpkin display. Jennifer Pinkerton Cook remembers how fun it was that Fonda signed autographs; she still has hers. Local band Zorro and the Blue Footballs played in the background of a scene shot at the Swingin’ Door. Fonda and Demme had seen the band at the saloon and had the group written into the script. They sang “The Bleeding Hearts Inn” and “Cry of the Wild Goose” and were paid $300.

The police are said to have made numerous calls to the cast and crew’s hotels for drunken and disorderly conduct. Rudeness to locals, especially the old Dickson Street crowd, led one person to comment that folks were happy to see them go. When asked about Northwest Arkansas, Fonda said, “We like Fayetteville fine. The people in Arkansas have been very cooperative, from the governor’s office on down. The police and officials here have been very helpful. We would consider coming back.”

The Blue and the Gray (1982)

The epic tale of two sisters and their families who find themselves on opposing sides during the Civil War.

Starring Stacy Keach, Gregory Peck, Lloyd Bridges, Colleen Dewhurst, John Hammond, Diane Baker, Julia Duffy

Filmed August–December 1981 at over 100 locations, including Fayetteville (University of Arkansas), Winslow, Beaver, Eureka Springs, Lake Wedington, Cave Springs, Elkins, Springdale, Wesley, Prairie Grove, Prairie Grove Battlefield State Park, and Eureka Springs & North Arkansas Railway

Gregory Peck on the set of

Actor Gregory Peck arriving on set of The Blue and the Gray for the reading of the Gettysburg Address, Circle H Farms, Fayetteville, September 27, 1981. Charles Bickford, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 10-27-1981)

Architecture historian Cyrus Sutherland was enlisted to find appropriate buildings for The Blue and the Gray’s many location shots, including the historic Headquarters House, which was actually under siege during the Battle of Fayetteville in 1863. With the help of Hollywood magic, the modern pavement of Fayetteville’s Washington Street disappeared under a layer of topsoil and Old Main on the University of Arkansas campus was transformed into Ford’s Theater, where President Lincoln was shot. The deathbed scene was filmed in an old shoestring plant in Springdale. Legendary UA athletic director Frank Broyles played one of Lincoln’s doctors. The production’s wardrobe, valued at $16–18 million (nearly equal to the film’s budget) was stored in a Springdale warehouse. It included Scarlett O’Hara’s famous green velvet dress (made from curtains) from Gone with the Wind.

Filming of

Filming the “Battle of Bull Run” for The Blue and the Gray,  Prairie Grove Battlefield State Park, October 2, 1981. Charles Bickford, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 10-3-1981)

The production company appreciated the friendliness and enthusiasm of Northwest Arkansas residents, who allowed their homes to be used as sets and sponsored fishing derbies and dinners for the crew. One day the director, actors, and crew stopped filming to watch Prairie Grove’s homecoming parade. An expensive proposition, as the average hourly production cost was $8,000.

A re-enactor receives a "head wound" from a makeup artist during filming of The Blue and the Gray, Prairie Grove Battlefield State Park, October 2, 1981.

A re-enactor receives a “head wound” from a makeup artist during filming of The Blue and the Gray, Prairie Grove Battlefield State Park, October 2, 1981. Charles Bickford, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 10-3-1981)

An estimated $11–17 million was spent in Northwest Arkansas. Thousands of folks were employed as actors and extras (the latter sometimes called “atmospheres” by the crew). Cal Kinzer, park historian at Prairie Grove Battlefield State Park, served as the film’s military coordinator and technical advisor, arranging for about 350 Civil War re-enactors, including the Union Rifles, a local unit.

Seamstress at Columbia Pictures' warehouse for The Blue and the Gray, Springdale, Arkansas, 1981

Seamstress at Columbia Pictures’ warehouse for The Blue and the Gra, Springdale, October 9, 1981. Guy Barnes, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 10-9-1981)

The miniseries’ premiere was held at the Malco Twin Cinema in Springdale. Several actors attended, including Stacy Keach. A reception was held at the Rodeo of the Ozarks community center. At the theater, Civil War re-enactors fired a gun salute as folks entered.

Man Outside (1987)

The suspenseful tale of a lawyer who’s been living in the woods as a hermit and the anthropologist who tries to figure out why, when he becomes the suspect in a missing-child case.

Starring Robert Logan, Kathleen Quinlan, Bradford Dillman, Levon Helm, Rick Danko, Patricia Relph

Filmed October–November 1985 in Fayetteville (Markham Hill, University of Arkansas campus), Johnson (post office), and Springdale (jail, municipal law library)

Actors Rick Danko and Patricia Relph (left) discuss a scene with Man Outside director Mark Stouffer, Fayetteville, Arkansas, 1985

Actors Rick Danko and Patricia Relph (left) discuss a scene with Man Outside director Mark Stouffer, Fayetteville, November 1985. Northwest Arkansas Times Collection (NWAT Box 44 84-5-20 Nov)

Fort Smith native Mark Stouffer, director, co-writer, and co-producer, wrote Man Outside (originally titled The Tuscaloosan: A Solitary Man) “explicitly for Fayetteville,” calling it “a wonderful place to structure a story.” Members of the legendary country rock group, The Band, had roles in the film, including Rick Danko and Levon Helm.

Crew and gear in-between scenes of Man Outside, Fayetteville, Arkansas, 1985

Crew and gear in-between scenes of Man Outside, Fayetteville, November 1985. Northwest Arkansas Times Collection (NWAT Box 44 84-5-20 Nov)

Many Northwest Arkansas residents were cast, including Springdale businessman Philip Steele, Patricia Relph of the University of Arkansas drama department (she also worked as a wardrobe assistant), law enforcement professionals Larry Fletcher, Bill Wolber, Kaine Garrett, and John Harris, and newsmen Guy Barnes and Mark Remes. During the filming of the courthouse scene, Barnes remembers taking up position “standing close to [the film] producer’s daddy,” thus ensuring that he would be seen on screen.

Actors filming the courthouse scene for Man Outside, with Levon Helm (middle), and the movie's star, Robert Logan (right), Fayetteville, Arkansas, 1985

Actors filming the courthouse scene for Man Outside, with Levon Helm (middle), and the movie’s star, Robert Logan (right), Fayetteville, November 21, 1985. Guy Barnes, photographer. Springdale News Collection (SN 11-21-1985)

When lead actress Kathleen Quinlan was told that in one scene she would be running from a wild boar, she said “I will jump from high places, even dive into cold water, but I will not be chased by a wild boar.” Fortunately for her, the boar was played by a 400-pound pet pig. Also in the movie was “Chessie,” a dog who shared a room at the Fayetteville Hilton with her handler and attended a reception for cast and crew put on by the Northwest Arkansas Motion Picture Commission.

Pass the Ammo (1988)

The comedic tale of a televangelist whose weekly broadcast is interrupted by rednecks, robbers-turned-hostage-takers, and the various entities struggling to end the crisis.

Starring Bill Paxton, Tim Curry, Annie Potts

Filmed February–April 1987 in Eureka Springs (city auditorium), Green Forest (Billie’s Bar), and Clifty (Clifty Store)

Crew preparing to film a scene for

Crew preparing to film a scene for Pass the Ammo at the city auditorium, Eureka Springs, February 26, 1987. Springdale News Collection (SN 2-26-1987)

When word went out about needing extras for Pass the Ammo (originally titled Pass the Ammunition), the casting director advertised for singers and dancers as well as folks who were “structurally unique” with “large noses and large bottoms and such.” The filmmakers employed locals as extras and crew and patronized area businesses, hotels, and restaurants, pumping an estimated $2 million into the area economy. The historic city auditorium became the fictional “Tower of Bethlehem” church. Statues and a false stone front were added to the building’s exterior, which was demolished by a tank in the final scenes of the movie.

But not everyone was happy with the movie, a spoof about crooked televangelists. After several local pastors read the script, they denounced it as being full of “nudity, sex, obscenity, perversity, drugs, vulgarity, racism, and violence.” Mayor Richard Schoeninger replied, “If it were pornographic, I would be forced to stop it.” Some criticized that the movie would make “Arkansans and Eureka Springs look backwards and hillbilly.” The Elna M. Smith Foundation, owners of the “Christ of the Ozarks” statue, deplored the movie. Protesters (led by a Foundation employee) picketed cast and crew. To keep it from being filmed, the statue was draped in black plastic “for restoration work.” But early shots taken of the undraped statue made it to the final cut.

Pass the Ammo was never shown in Arkansas due to financial problems which forced the production company to sell the film rights for video release. But local folks worked hard to hold a premiere in Fayetteville, sponsored by the Northwest Arkansas Motion Picture Commission. As chairman Philip Steele of Springdale noted, “This movie was shot in Arkansas, using a lot of Arkansas people and we are tickled that it will be shown here. We want our membership to see how exciting the film industry can be.”

Frank and Jesse (1994)

An action-packed tale of how the James and Younger brothers and their co-horts turn to a life of crime after being oppressed by Chicago railroad investors and Union soldiers.

Starring Rob Lowe, Bill Paxton, Randy Travis

Filmed December 1993–January 1994 in Fayetteville, Pea Ridge, Winslow, Eureka Springs, Prairie Grove, Chester, and War Eagle Cavern. Railroad scenes featured the Winslow Tunnel, the railcar on Dickson Street used as a branch location of the Bank of Fayetteville, and historic trains operated by the Eureka Springs & North Arkansas Railway and the Arkansas & Missouri Railroad.

Surrounded by crew members, star Rob Lowe (center, with beard) prepares to shoot a stump-pulling scene for Frank and Jesse, Fayetteville, Arkansas, 1993

Surrounded by crew members, star Rob Lowe (center, with beard) prepares to shoot a stump-pulling scene for Frank and Jesse, December 11, 1993. William Cooksey, photographer. Northwest Arkansas Times Collection (NWAT 12-11-1993)

About 1,500 folks applied to be extras in Frank and Jesse (originally titled Lone Rider). Some folks were cast because of their beards while others had “matronly appeal, a waspish waist, or long hair that could easily be twisted into a period style.” Mike Whitehead and his family were cast as mourners in one scene. He said, “It was great. It was fun to watch the actors and be part of the action.” Shane McNair of Gentry was part of the sound crew, working twelve-hour days, six days a week, for $300 a week. “The money wasn’t that good, but it was fun.” He enjoyed working with the actors but they were “just . . . co-workers. It was boring after a while.” McNair noted that country musician and actor Randy Travis, who played Cole Younger, often visited with fans and signed autographs.

Catherine Bruce of Fayetteville helped with wardrobe. She said, “In the art of movie making, what you see on the silver screen many times is the result of special effects, hard work, and a bit of magic.” For instance, a vest worn by star Rob Lowe had a red-stained “vest double,” worn after the actor was “shot.” Many props were brought from California, but some were rented or purchased locally. One scene required a kerosene bomb, fabricated in part from dowel rods and a can of beans bought at Walmart. A gallows was built near Goshen at the weekend retreat of Dr. Harvey and Amy Smith. Their log cabin was transformed into Jesse James’ home, complete with period furnishings and a reproduction wood stove from Rogers’ House of Webster.

Extras waiting for their scene for Frank and Jesse in front of Old Main, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, 1994

Extras waiting for their scene for Frank and Jesse in front of Old Main, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, January 11, 1994. William Cooksey, photographer. Northwest Arkansas Times Collection (NWAT 1-11-1994)

Fayetteville residents Kenneth Williams and Eric Gordon served as location managers, securing contracts with property owners. “When a film company comes in, fences are removed and buildings altered. We come along behind and make sure everything goes back the way it was before.” Of the company’s time in the area, producer Cassian Elwes said, “It’s been a lot of fun. The people of Arkansas are so warm and gracious. We’ll take home a lot of nice memories.”

Recent Movies
Chrystal (1994)

The dramatic tale of a convict returning home after causing a car crash that killed his son and injured his wife, and how he has to face the challenges of reuniting with her while leaving his old drug-dealing ways.

Starring Billy Bob Thornton, Lisa Blount

Filmed in Eureka Springs


Mr. Christmas (2005)

A heartwarming Depression-era tale of a young girl who asks for the perfect gift from Santa, which her father can’t afford.

Starring Jace McLean, Jen Celene Little, Ireland Rose Maddox

Filmed in Eureka Springs


Elizabethtown (2005)

A romantic tale of a failed shoe designer who is contemplating suicide but is halted by the death of his father, only to meet a friendly flight attendant who helps him come to terms with his life and find love.

Starring Orlando Bloom, Kirstin Dunst, Susan Sarandon, Alec Baldwin

One scene filmed in Beaver (Little Golden Gate Bridge)


War Eagle, Arkansas (2007)

A compelling tale of a high school student with a stutter who relies on his friend (who uses a wheelchair) to help him speak to people, but the two don’t see eye-to-eye about the girl one of them is sweet on.

Starring Brian Dennehy, Mary Kay Place, Luke Grimes, Dan McCabe

Filmed in Eureka Springs, Huntsville, Fayetteville, War Eagle, Berryville, Buffalo National River


Gordon Family Tree (2012)

The coming-of-age tale about an unfulfilled architect who takes a road trip and builds secret tree houses for the children of the generous folks he meets along the way, and who comes to understand the virtue in doing what he loves.

Starring Corbin Bernsen, Richard Karn, Jennica Schwartsman

Filmed in Fayetteville


Valley Inn (2014)

A comedic tale of an East Coast college student who finds herself selling Christian books door-to-door in a small town, only to have the quirky but endearing locals show her what’s most valuable in life.

Starring Joey Lauren Adams, Natalie Canerday

Filmed in Hindsville (Valley Inn Café), Springdale (Rodeo of the Ozarks)


Greater (2016)

 The true story of Brandon Burlsworth and his struggle to become a Razorback football player at the University of Arkansas, before his tragic death at age twenty-two.

Starring Christopher Severio, Neal McDonough, Quinton Aaron, Nick Searcy

Filmed in Springdale, Farmington, Gravette, Lincoln, Fayetteville (Razorback Stadium, Broyles Athletic Center, Old Main), Harrison


True Detective [Season Three] (2019)

Spanning several decades, a detective investigates a terrible crime committed in the Ozarks involving two children.

Starring Mahershala Ali, Carmen Ejogo, Stephen Dorff, Scoot McNairy, Ray Fisher

Filmed in Fayetteville, Bentonville, Lincoln, Rogers, Springdale, Huntsville (Tugboat’s Place)

Local Movie Theaters

Credits

Barnes, Guy. “‘Hodge-Podge’ Uniforms Get Careful Research.” Springdale News, 10-18-1981.

———. “Man Outside Story Triumphs.” Springdale News, 10-29-1986.

———. “Motion Picture Wizards Weave Webs of Illusion.” Springdale News, 12-14-1981.

———. “Scenes for Solitary Man Unfold Atop Wooded Hill.” Springdale News, 11-17-1985.

Barr, Michael. “Extra! Extra! An ‘Atmosphere’ Speaks.” [Fayetteville] Grapevine, 11-10-1982.

Bowden, Bill. “Eureka Springs studying moviemaker tax rebate.” Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, 1-13-2014.

———. “Hindsville café stars in Arkansans’ movie.” Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, 7-14-2013.

Bradley, Larry. 20th Century-Fox Production of Jesse James. McDonald County Press: Noel, Missouri, 1970.

Brooks, Kristen. “Northwest Arkansas Motion Picture Commission Hard at Work.” Springdale News, 8-2-1987.

Busby, Jonathan. “Oscar-Winner Brennan Stars in Movie at Winslow.” Arkansas Gazette, 5-9-1971.

Button, Patrick.  Can Motion Picture Incentives Create a Local Film Company?, academia.edu, 7-17-2014. (accessed 2015; no longer available 6/2020)

Carl, Floyd Jr. “Mostly the truth.” Washington County Observer, 9-11-1986.

Davies, David. “Stories Behind the Scenes Make Memorable Film.” Northwest Arkansas Times, 12-20-1981.

Eureka Springs Times-Echo. “Free Blue and Gray premiere will help promote new regional film commission.” 8-19-1982.

Fayetteville History Facebook page. Fighting Mad memories. (accessed 4/2015)

Franco, Cheree. “The price of “made in Arkansas.” Arkansas Times, 6-20-2012.

Fry, Ben. “Movies.” CALS Encyclopedia of Arkansas  (accessed 4/2015)

Greer, Edna L. “Filming of Jesse James.” Ozarks Mountaineer, July 1970.

Gute, Melissa.  “Studio looks to boost film industry in region.” Northwest Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, 2-10-2019.

Hall, Grant. “Film Makers Draw Crowd.” Northwest Arkansas Times, 11-4-1975.

Harrison Daily Times. “Changes in Eureka Script Announced.” 1-23-1987.

———. “Concerns Continue About Eureka Film.” 1-22-1987.

———. “Filming of Movie at Eureka Announced,” Harrison Daily Times, undated news clipping in Shiloh Museum research files. (probably January/February 1987).

Hogan, J. B. “From the Lyric to the UArk: Fayetteville’s Old Movie Houses.” Flashback (Washington County Historical Society), Vol. 58, No. 4.

James, Dena. “Clifty Store ‘Robbed’ for Upcoming Movie.” Madison County Record, 4-9-1987.

Jones, Glenn. Email to Shiloh Museum regarding Wonder Valley, 8-28-2007.

Jones, Matt. “Takeaways from Brandon Burlsworth movie, Greater.” WholeHogSports.com, 8-24-2016. (accessed 6/2020)

Kelley, Ashley S. “Warm Reception: Victory’s First Grand Opening Was to a Packed House.” Rogers Morning News, 9-23-2000.

Kinder, Kevin. “Lights! camera! action!: Valley Inn crew collects, breeds Arkansas movie talent.” Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, 7-14-2013.

Kinzer, Cal. “The Blue and the Gray in Northwest Arkansas.” Flashback (Washington County Historical Society), Vol. 32, No. 4.

Klossner, Michael. Fighting Mad.” CALS Encyclopedia of Arkansas. (accessed 4/2015)

Madison County Record. “Pass the Ammo to be Shown in Fayetteville.” 5-25-1988.

Martin, Wayne. Pettigrew Arkansas: Hardwood Capital of the World. Shiloh Museum of Ozark History: Springdale, 2010.

Marts, Kent. “‘Speed, sound; action!'” Benton County Democrat, 3-8-1987.

McNeil, Betsy. “A look behind the scenes of a movie filmed in northwest Arkansas.” Gentry Courier-Journal, 1-26-1994.

———. “Movie Production Involves Numerous Area Workers.” Springdale Morning News, 1-22-1994.

Milton, Mathew.  “Lights. Camera. Fayetteville.” AY Magazine, January 2020.

Northwest Arkansas Times. “Filming of Fonda Movie Set for Area.” 10-14-1975.

———. “New Drive-In Theater Opens Thursday Night.” 8-17-1949.

———. “Opening scenes for Ozark movie completed by production crew.” 10-16-1985.

———. “State Hopes Film’s Success Will Attract Movie-Makers.” 1-31-1982.

———. “Winslow to be Movie Setting.” 4-26-1971.

Palmer, Dorothy. “State’s Film Future Bright.” Arkansas Gazette, 9-21-1981.

Ryburn, Stacy.  “Rockhill Studios opens doors.” Northwest Arkansas Democrat-Gazette, 4-26-2018.

Saunders, Bev. “Frank and Jesse comes to northwest Arkansas.” Gentry Courier-Journal, 1-26-1994.

Sell, Mary Jean. “Making a movie challenges patience.” Eureka Springs Times Echo, 3-5-1987.

———. “‘Our movie’ finally on screen.” Eureka Springs Times-Echo, 6-2-1988.

Shiras, Ginger. “Applause Welcomes Eureka Movie Debut.” Harrison Daily Times, 5-27-1988.

———. “Arkansas Showing of Pass the Ammo Scheduled.” Harrison Daily Times, 5-20-1988.

Smith, Jamie. “Film industry taking notice of Arkansas (updated).” The City Wire, 4-8-2013. (accessed 4/2015)

Springdale News. “Bigger than ‘Masasa:” McLaglen Recaps Filming of The Blue and the Gray.” 11-17-1982.

———. “Playing with Peter Fonda . . . Is Great Pretending.” 10-26-1975.

Sutherland, Cyrus A. “The Blue and the Gray in Northwest Arkansas: Cyrus A. Sutherland’s Story.” Flashback (Washington County Historical Society), Vol. 32, No. 3 (August 1982).

Tributes.com. Viva Ruth Liles obituary. (accessed 4/2015)

Wakefield, Jim. “The Jesse James Movie Train.” Unpublished manuscript, late 1900s.

“We ought to be in pictures . . . motion pictures in Arkansas.” Uncredited and undated news clipping (possibly Northwest Arkansas Times, 1985). Shiloh Museum research files.

Weddington, Randy. “The Blue and the Gray: An Electrifying Experience.” [Fayetteville] Grapevine, 11-10-1982.

Settling the Ozarks

Settling the Ozarks

Core Exhibit

A large tract of land including what is now Northwest Arkansas was, for a time, the hunting grounds of the Osage Indians. Beginning in the late 1700s, increasing settlement by Euro-Americans in and around the Cherokee homeland in southern Appalachia led some tribal members to look for new land in what would become Arkansas Territory. Over the years additional Indian settlers came and by the 1810s had established farmsteads, orchards, and mills in the northwest quarter of the territory. In an effort to keep the peace between the Cherokees and the Osage, land purchases were made and boundaries redrawn. But the white settlers and politicians of the Arkansas Territory wanted the fertile valleys and timberland for themselves. In 1828 the land was opened officially for settlement.

Those Who Came

The early settlers were hardy, adventurous, and smart. They came in oxen-drawn wagons, bringing with them the things they needed to begin a new life. Tools, housewares, furniture, clothing and linens, livestock, seeds, and treasured heirlooms were carefully chosen. They knew how to clear land, grow crops, make and repair tools, preserve food, construct buildings, weave cloth, sew clothing, care for livestock, and doctor themselves. The work was hard, but the rewards were great—independence, a new beginning, and a piece of land to call their own.

The majority of new settlers in the Arkansas Ozarks prior to the Civil War came from Missouri and the Upland South (southern Appalachia) including Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina, and Virginia. Most were native-born Americans of Anglo-Saxon origin.

Not all settlers came of their own free will. Some were enslaved workers. Although slavery wasn’t as widespread in northern Arkansas as it was in the South, many conditions were similar. Children and adults were denied their freedom and forced to work, all for the benefit of their enslavers, often influential citizens made wealthy through the labor of others. Most settlers didn’t enslave workers, not necessarily because they condemned the institution of slavery, but because the cost of such workers was beyond their means. During the 1830s thousands of Cherokees still living in the east, their enslaved people, and members of other eastern tribes endured forced removal to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) on Northwest Arkansas’s western border. Their journey is now known as the “Trail of Tears.”

Living Off the Land

A settler’s first permanent shelter was often made of logs, such as the Lewis-Reed cabin (a portion of which is on exhibit). It was built in 1841 by Hugh Lewis in what was called “Boone’s Grove,” near present-day Elkins. Lewis came to Washington County from Missouri in 1831. By 1840, he and his wife Harriet had five children and 240 acres, including good bottom land for farming. The cabin changed hands twice more before it was bought by Alexander and Elizabeth Reed in 1866.  Alexander was born in Tennessee and came to Northwest Arkansas in 1852. Elizabeth’s father William McGarrah came to Arkansas in 1826 from South Carolina and was one of Fayetteville’s first white settlers.

For most settlers, living off the land was hard work, day in and day out. Everyone had a role to play if the family was to survive and prosper. Men and older boys cleared land to plow and plant fields of food crops. They built homes and barns, hunted wild game, slaughtered hogs, repaired fences, chopped firewood, made tools, tanned leather, built furniture, and tended livestock.  Women and older girls preserved food and prepared three meals a day. They raised children, spun fiber and wove it into cloth, sewed clothing and household linens, made soap and candles, washed laundry, killed and plucked chickens, tended the vegetable garden, and gathered wild plants for food and medicine. Young children had chores as well. They helped haul water and harvest crops, picked seeds from cotton bolls, weeded the garden, fed livestock, and scraped the hair from scalded hogs. Most importantly, they learned the skills needed for life on the frontier.

The first industries in the area took advantage of the abundant wildlife. Hunters killed deer, raccoon, fox, beaver, and other animals for their pelts. Bears were taken for meat and fur, but more importantly for fat, which was rendered to make fuel for oil lamps, lubricants, and even hair gel. As communities grew, specialty businesses sprung up. Millers ground corn and wheat, tanners cured leather and fashioned shoes, cabinetmakers crafted furniture, and blacksmiths shod horses and made tools.

Making a Community

There were no free, state-sponsored public schools in Arkansas until after the Civil War. While most children did not attend school, some were taught to read, write, and do arithmetic at home. There were a few short-term, fee-based schools scattered about, run by ministers or teachers (usually men, often with limited schooling themselves). For enslaved African Americans, education wasn’t illegal, but it wasn’t encouraged. Those few who were taught to read often learned their letters from the Bible, as a pathway towards Christianity. Well-to-do Cherokee and Choctaw families sent their children to be educated at the Fayetteville Female Seminary, along with the children of well-to-do whites. But the Indians faced prejudice, both from the community and from white parents, some of whom moved their girls to another school.

Churches were great civilizing forces on the frontier. In Northwest Arkansas, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist churches were the earliest and largest groups. Typically, church members first met in homes, then progressed to one-room log buildings and, later, frame churches. In the years before the Civil War, the issue of slavery was debated by all churches. In many churches debate led to division along North-South lines. Some churches accepted African-American members, who were probably segregated in worship from their fellow white congregants.

Early doctors generally received training by studying under a recognized physician. Some attended medical school. Doctors who practiced “eclectic medicine” believed that the medical treatments of the day—bleedings, purgings, and freezing baths—were too harsh. Instead, they relied on plants and other ingredients (including soap, gunpowder, and earthworms!) to treat ailments. “Granny women” and midwives ministered to the people as well. Tea made from the roots of the sassafras tree was drunk in the springtime to thin the blood and dried mullein leaves were smoked in a pipe to cure a cough.

A large tract of land including what is now Northwest Arkansas was, for a time, the hunting grounds of the Osage Indians. Beginning in the late 1700s, increasing settlement by Euro-Americans in and around the Cherokee homeland in southern Appalachia led some tribal members to look for new land in what would become Arkansas Territory. Over the years additional Indian settlers came and by the 1810s had established farmsteads, orchards, and mills in the northwest quarter of the territory. In an effort to keep the peace between the Cherokees and the Osage, land purchases were made and boundaries redrawn. But the white settlers and politicians of the Arkansas Territory wanted the fertile valleys and timberland for themselves. In 1828 the land was opened officially for settlement.

Those Who Came


The early settlers were hardy, adventurous, and smart. They came in oxen-drawn wagons, bringing with them the things they needed to begin a new life. Tools, housewares, furniture, clothing and linens, livestock, seeds, and treasured heirlooms were carefully chosen. They knew how to clear land, grow crops, make and repair tools, preserve food, construct buildings, weave cloth, sew clothing, care for livestock, and doctor themselves. The work was hard, but the rewards were great—independence, a new beginning, and a piece of land to call their own.

The majority of new settlers in the Arkansas Ozarks prior to the Civil War came from Missouri and the Upland South (southern Appalachia) including Tennessee, Kentucky, North Carolina, and Virginia. Most were native-born Americans of Anglo-Saxon origin.

Not all settlers came of their own free will. Some were enslaved workers. Although slavery wasn’t as widespread in northern Arkansas as it was in the South, many conditions were similar. Children and adults were denied their freedom and forced to work, all for the benefit of their enslavers, often influential citizens made wealthy through the labor of others. Most settlers didn’t enslave workers, not necessarily because they condemned the institution of slavery, but because the cost of such workers was beyond their means. During the 1830s thousands of Cherokees still living in the east, their enslaved people, and members of other eastern tribes endured forced removal to Indian Territory (now Oklahoma) on Northwest Arkansas’s western border. Their journey is now known as the “Trail of Tears.”

Living Off the Land

A settler’s first permanent shelter was often made of logs, such as the Lewis-Reed cabin (a portion of which is on exhibit). It was built in 1841 by Hugh Lewis in what was called “Boone’s Grove,” near present-day Elkins. Lewis came to Washington County from Missouri in 1831. By 1840, he and his wife Harriet had five children and 240 acres, including good bottom land for farming. The cabin changed hands twice more before it was bought by Alexander and Elizabeth Reed in 1866.  Alexander was born in Tennessee and came to Northwest Arkansas in 1852. Elizabeth’s father William McGarrah came to Arkansas in 1826 from South Carolina and was one of Fayetteville’s first white settlers.

For most settlers, living off the land was hard work, day in and day out. Everyone had a role to play if the family was to survive and prosper. Men and older boys cleared land to plow and plant fields of food crops. They built homes and barns, hunted wild game, slaughtered hogs, repaired fences, chopped firewood, made tools, tanned leather, built furniture, and tended livestock.  Women and older girls preserved food and prepared three meals a day. They raised children, spun fiber and wove it into cloth, sewed clothing and household linens, made soap and candles, washed laundry, killed and plucked chickens, tended the vegetable garden, and gathered wild plants for food and medicine. Young children had chores as well. They helped haul water and harvest crops, picked seeds from cotton bolls, weeded the garden, fed livestock, and scraped the hair from scalded hogs. Most importantly, they learned the skills needed for life on the frontier.

The first industries in the area took advantage of the abundant wildlife. Hunters killed deer, raccoon, fox, beaver, and other animals for their pelts. Bears were taken for meat and fur, but more importantly for fat, which was rendered to make fuel for oil lamps, lubricants, and even hair gel. As communities grew, specialty businesses sprung up. Millers ground corn and wheat, tanners cured leather and fashioned shoes, cabinetmakers crafted furniture, and blacksmiths shod horses and made tools.

Making a Community

There were no free, state-sponsored public schools in Arkansas until after the Civil War. While most children did not attend school, some were taught to read, write, and do arithmetic at home. There were a few short-term, fee-based schools scattered about, run by ministers or teachers (usually men, often with limited schooling themselves). For enslaved African Americans, education wasn’t illegal, but it wasn’t encouraged. Those few who were taught to read often learned their letters from the Bible, as a pathway towards Christianity. Well-to-do Cherokee and Choctaw families sent their children to be educated at the Fayetteville Female Seminary, along with the children of well-to-do whites. But the Indians faced prejudice, both from the community and from white parents, some of whom moved their girls to another school.

Churches were great civilizing forces on the frontier. In Northwest Arkansas, Presbyterian, Baptist, and Methodist churches were the earliest and largest groups. Typically, church members first met in homes, then progressed to one-room log buildings and, later, frame churches. In the years before the Civil War, the issue of slavery was debated by all churches. In many churches debate led to division along North-South lines. Some churches accepted African-American members, who were probably segregated in worship from their fellow white congregants.

Early doctors generally received training by studying under a recognized physician. Some attended medical school. Doctors who practiced “eclectic medicine” believed that the medical treatments of the day—bleedings, purgings, and freezing baths—were too harsh. Instead, they relied on plants and other ingredients (including soap, gunpowder, and earthworms!) to treat ailments. “Granny women” and midwives ministered to the people as well. Tea made from the roots of the sassafras tree was drunk in the springtime to thin the blood and dried mullein leaves were smoked in a pipe to cure a cough.

Single Pens, Saddlebags, and Dog Trots

Single Pens, Saddlebags, and Dog Trots

Online Exhibit
The Wesley Graham family by their single pen log cabin, Monitor Community near Springdale (Washington County), circa 1893.

The Wesley Graham family by their single pen log cabin, Monitor community near Springdale, circa 1893. From left, Calvin, Hulda, Ervin, Wesley, Callie, Dollie, Nancy, Frankie, and Doss Graham. Willard Graham Collection (S-92-35-2)

Imagine coming to a new land and having to build a house, plant crops, and make tools, furnishings, and clothes in order to survive. For the folks who began settling the Arkansas Ozarks in the 1820s and 1830s, one of the most important skills they brought with them was the ability to build a home from logs.

So why does the thought of a log cabin often conjure up two such different images of early Americans? On the one hand is a type of rough nobility—think hardy pioneers and young Abe Lincoln reading by firelight. On the other hand is the stereotype of the poor, ignorant, backwoods hillbilly.

City dwellers might view homespun clothing, loose hogs, and corn patches as primitive, but in truth the people who lived in log homes were self-sufficient, independent-minded farmers. They used their skills and resourcefulness to raise families and live off the land.

The Log Building Comes West

Building styles evolve over time. They are influenced by many factors including cultural traditions, available building materials and skilled workers, and the need to solve problems unique to a certain terrain or climate.

As early as the 1830s land shortages in the east forced a growing population to move westward toward new frontiers. As settlers gradually migrated across the country, so did their particular architectural styles and building techniques.

Scholars have defined several folk-culture regions in the eastern half of the United States. The cultural traditions found in the Ozarks reflect those of the Upland South (southern Appalachia). In turn, these traditions originally derived from those found in the Middle Atlantic colonies where small, one-room log homes were generally built using German log-construction techniques. Swedish log-construction techniques, which in part used round logs, are found further north along the Atlantic seaboard.

According to census records, between 1830 and 1880 the majority of new settlers in the Arkansas Ozarks came from Tennessee and Missouri. Most were native-born Americans of Anglo-Saxon origin, but some were of African descent, brought here as enslaved workers.

Traditional Ozark Log Buildings

Most early homes were one-room deep and one-story high. That’s because traditional log-construction techniques made it difficult to interlock two or more logs to create a long wall. And unless a second story was part of the original construction, adding a new floor to an already finished house meant removing the roof and starting anew.

The Ozark homebuilder was tradition-bound. Because of a shared idea of what a home should look like, there were few variations in home styles from builder to builder. In general, log homes had a definite “front” along the length of the house, normally facing the road. Homes were often symmetrical, the left half mirroring the right. When additions were needed the simplicity of the architectural style meant that it was easy to add on while maintaining a visual balance.

Many log buildings are called log cabins, but a true cabin is made up of a single square or rectangular unit called a “pen.” The size of the pen depended upon the size of log two men could comfortably handle, usually between 12 and 18 feet in length. A pen was an indivisible unit, both in the way it was constructed and in the mind-set of the builder. To enlarge a home, one had to build another pen or attach a shed, not enlarge the existing pen.

The Wesley Graham family by their single pen log cabin, Monitor Community near Springdale (Washington County), circa 1893.

The Wesley Graham family by their single pen log cabin, Monitor community near Springdale, circa 1893. From left, Calvin, Hulda, Ervin, Wesley, Callie, Dollie, Nancy, Frankie, and Doss Graham. Willard Graham Collection (S-92-35-2)

Imagine coming to a new land and having to build a house, plant crops, and make tools, furnishings, and clothes in order to survive. For the folks who began settling the Arkansas Ozarks in the 1820s and 1830s, one of the most important skills they brought with them was the ability to build a home from logs.

So why does the thought of a log cabin often conjure up two such different images of early Americans? On the one hand is a type of rough nobility—think hardy pioneers and young Abe Lincoln reading by firelight. On the other hand is the stereotype of the poor, ignorant, backwoods hillbilly.

City dwellers might view homespun clothing, loose hogs, and corn patches as primitive, but in truth the people who lived in log homes were self-sufficient, independent-minded farmers. They used their skills and resourcefulness to raise families and live off the land.

The Log Building Comes West

Building styles evolve over time. They are influenced by many factors including cultural traditions, available building materials and skilled workers, and the need to solve problems unique to a certain terrain or climate.

As early as the 1830s land shortages in the east forced a growing population to move westward toward new frontiers. As settlers gradually migrated across the country, so did their particular architectural styles and building techniques.

Scholars have defined several folk-culture regions in the eastern half of the United States. The cultural traditions found in the Ozarks reflect those of the Upland South (southern Appalachia). In turn, these traditions originally derived from those found in the Middle Atlantic colonies where small, one-room log homes were generally built using German log-construction techniques. Swedish log-construction techniques, which in part used round logs, are found further north along the Atlantic seaboard.

According to census records, between 1830 and 1880 the majority of new settlers in the Arkansas Ozarks came from Tennessee and Missouri. Most were native-born Americans of Anglo-Saxon origin, but some were of African descent, brought here as enslaved workers.

Traditional Ozark Log Buildings

Most early homes were one-room deep and one-story high. That’s because traditional log-construction techniques made it difficult to interlock two or more logs to create a long wall. And unless a second story was part of the original construction, adding a new floor to an already finished house meant removing the roof and starting anew.

The Ozark homebuilder was tradition-bound. Because of a shared idea of what a home should look like, there were few variations in home styles from builder to builder. In general, log homes had a definite “front” along the length of the house, normally facing the road. Homes were often symmetrical, the left half mirroring the right. When additions were needed the simplicity of the architectural style meant that it was easy to add on while maintaining a visual balance.

Many log buildings are called log cabins, but a true cabin is made up of a single square or rectangular unit called a “pen.” The size of the pen depended upon the size of log two men could comfortably handle, usually between 12 and 18 feet in length. A pen was an indivisible unit, both in the way it was constructed and in the mind-set of the builder. To enlarge a home, one had to build another pen or attach a shed, not enlarge the existing pen.

There are four types of log buildings found in the early Ozarks, the rarest being the saddlebag.

Single Pen—One pen with a front door and an exterior chimney on one end.

Double Pen—Two pens, side-by-side, with two front doors, an interior doorway connecting the two pens, and two exterior chimneys on either end.

Saddlebag—Two pens, side-by-side, with two front doors, an interior doorway connecting the pens, and a central interior chimney.

Dogtrot—Two pens connected by a covered, central breezeway, with two or more doors on the front of the house and in the breezeway, and two exterior chimneys on either end.

Log structures weren’t only used as homes. On the farm, animals and hay were kept in log barns, log smokehouses were used to cure meat, log corn cribs held dried ears of corn, and log springhouses protected natural springs. Neighbors shared skills and resources to build log churches and schools for the community. The first courthouses were often built of logs.

Construction Techniques
Moving the 1850s Ritter log cabin onto the grounds of the Shiloh Museum of Ozark History, Springdale, Arkansas, April 22, 1980.

Moving the 1850s Ritter log cabin onto the grounds of the Shiloh Museum of Ozark History, Springdale, April 22, 1980. Charles Bickford, photographer. Springdale News Collection (S-80-51-4)

It was relatively easy to put up the walls of a log home in a day or two, using just a handful of tools. Most men had a basic knowledge of how to build, but they counted on their neighbors’ skilled assistance. More affluent settlers like John Latta of Washington County relied on his enslaved workers to help build his home.

Home building was a community event. After the homeowner prepared the logs and brought them to the homesite he set the first few courses of timber himself. Then the call went out to neighboring families. While the men and older boys worked, the women prepared food, quilted or sewed, and exchanged news.

Getting to Work

Oak was preferred because it was durable, strong, and readily available. Once a good-sized tree was selected it was chopped down with an ax. Iron and wooden wedges called “gluts” were used to split larger logs. To square up the log, it was laid lengthwise atop other logs to lift it off of the ground. A hewing (cut) line was determined along one side and lightly marked with an ax. The worker stood on top of the log and, taking his chopping ax, deeply scored the side of the log every few inches to the desired depth of the soon-to-be finished side.

Standing on the ground, parallel to the log at one end and slowly moving backwards, the worker carefully swung his heavy broadax, hewing down the line he just scored bit by bit to knock off wood chips and create a flat surface. The log was turned and the next side hewed. Hewing took great strength, control, and stamina.

“Planking” was common in the Ozarks. Not only was it faster to shape only two (opposite) sides of the log for the inner and outer walls, the rough bark left along the top and bottom was thought to better grip the chinking (fill) material. Mules snaked the finished logs from forest to home site.

Sill logs were placed on foot-high stacked stone piers to serve as the base of the walls. Smaller logs used as floor joists were fitted into the sills with mortise joints to hold them into place. While some built their homes close to the ground and used hard-packed soil as their floor, most people secured sawn boards or puncheons, half-round logs, atop their floor joists.

One by one the logs were lifted into place and notched together at the corners, forming the walls. Corner notching was critical. The strength and rigidity of a log wall depends on how well the corners are interlocked. In Northwest Arkansas the half-dovetail notch was the most common notching technique, followed by square notching. The half-dovetail notch was strong and its shape promoted water runoff, thus preventing rot. The projecting ends of the logs were sawed off, squaring up the cabin’s corners.

As the walls grew in height, heavy poles were leaned against them and used as skids. Each log was pushed and pulled up the poles, set on top of the wall, and notched into place. To create the framework for a second floor or loft, or to support the roof system, cross beams were placed across the width of the building. From there the wall could be continued or the roof added.

Finishing the Home

When an opening was needed for a door, window, or fireplace hearth, the height of the opening was determined and the wall built to that level. Two vertical saw cuts were placed in the highest log before another was added. Once the wall was completed, a saw was slipped into the cuts and worked down to the bottom of the desired opening. Wood blocks placed between the gaps in the logs prevented the opening from collapsing. Sawn boards were nailed into either side of the finished opening to create a frame. Some cabins didn’t have windows, as glass was expensive.

The roof system could be made in several ways. One way was to place upright support poles along the middle of the ceiling beams. On top of the center supports sat a long ridgepole running the length of the house. Made of split logs or sawn boards, the rafters formed the diagonal slope of the roof. Placed at intervals, one end of the rafter was secured into the ridgepole while the other end was attached to the wall. Shingles were nailed into strips of wood placed horizontally across the rafters.

Split-wood shingles were made from straight-grained oak. A log was cut into 16-inch lengths and then split into flat blocks. A block was stood on end, a froe blade placed in line with the grain, and a maul was used to hammer the froe down the length of wood, splitting it into shingles. Depending on the size of the house, a thousand or more shingles might be needed.

Chinking made of wood chips or shingles was stuffed diagonally in the gaps between the logs and covered with daubing, usually a lime mortar mixed with clay, mud, or sand. Some builders used only a mortar mix, which wasn’t as weather tight in the long run.

The chimney was often made of stone, either naturally formed or shaped with hammer and chisel to form blocks. Some homes had a stick-and-mud chimney lined with clay. While not ideal, they were relatively easy to put together.

Construction Techniques
Moving the 1850s Ritter log cabin onto the grounds of the Shiloh Museum of Ozark History, Springdale, Arkansas, April 22, 1980.

Moving the 1850s Ritter log cabin onto the grounds of the Shiloh Museum of Ozark History, Springdale, April 22, 1980. Charles Bickford, photographer. Springdale News Collection (S-80-51-4)

It was relatively easy to put up the walls of a log home in a day or two, using just a handful of tools. Most men had a basic knowledge of how to build, but they counted on their neighbors’ skilled assistance. More affluent settlers like John Latta of Washington County relied on his enslaved workers to help build his home.

Home building was a community event. After the homeowner prepared the logs and brought them to the homesite he set the first few courses of timber himself. Then the call went out to neighboring families. While the men and older boys worked, the women prepared food, quilted or sewed, and exchanged news.

Getting to Work

Oak was preferred because it was durable, strong, and readily available. Once a good-sized tree was selected it was chopped down with an ax. Iron and wooden wedges called “gluts” were used to split larger logs. To square up the log, it was laid lengthwise atop other logs to lift it off of the ground. A hewing (cut) line was determined along one side and lightly marked with an ax. The worker stood on top of the log and, taking his chopping ax, deeply scored the side of the log every few inches to the desired depth of the soon-to-be finished side.

Standing on the ground, parallel to the log at one end and slowly moving backwards, the worker carefully swung his heavy broadax, hewing down the line he just scored bit by bit to knock off wood chips and create a flat surface. The log was turned and the next side hewed. Hewing took great strength, control, and stamina.

“Planking” was common in the Ozarks. Not only was it faster to shape only two (opposite) sides of the log for the inner and outer walls, the rough bark left along the top and bottom was thought to better grip the chinking (fill) material. Mules snaked the finished logs from forest to home site.

Sill logs were placed on foot-high stacked stone piers to serve as the base of the walls. Smaller logs used as floor joists were fitted into the sills with mortise joints to hold them into place. While some built their homes close to the ground and used hard-packed soil as their floor, most people secured sawn boards or puncheons, half-round logs, atop their floor joists.

One by one the logs were lifted into place and notched together at the corners, forming the walls. Corner notching was critical. The strength and rigidity of a log wall depends on how well the corners are interlocked. In Northwest Arkansas the half-dovetail notch was the most common notching technique, followed by square notching. The half-dovetail notch was strong and its shape promoted water runoff, thus preventing rot. The projecting ends of the logs were sawed off, squaring up the cabin’s corners.

As the walls grew in height, heavy poles were leaned against them and used as skids. Each log was pushed and pulled up the poles, set on top of the wall, and notched into place. To create the framework for a second floor or loft, or to support the roof system, cross beams were placed across the width of the building. From there the wall could be continued or the roof added.

Finishing the Home

When an opening was needed for a door, window, or fireplace hearth, the height of the opening was determined and the wall built to that level. Two vertical saw cuts were placed in the highest log before another was added. Once the wall was completed, a saw was slipped into the cuts and worked down to the bottom of the desired opening. Wood blocks placed between the gaps in the logs prevented the opening from collapsing. Sawn boards were nailed into either side of the finished opening to create a frame. Some cabins didn’t have windows, as glass was expensive.

The roof system could be made in several ways. One way was to place upright support poles along the middle of the ceiling beams. On top of the center supports sat a long ridgepole running the length of the house. Made of split logs or sawn boards, the rafters formed the diagonal slope of the roof. Placed at intervals, one end of the rafter was secured into the ridgepole while the other end was attached to the wall. Shingles were nailed into strips of wood placed horizontally across the rafters.

Split-wood shingles were made from straight-grained oak. A log was cut into 16-inch lengths and then split into flat blocks. A block was stood on end, a froe blade placed in line with the grain, and a maul was used to hammer the froe down the length of wood, splitting it into shingles. Depending on the size of the house, a thousand or more shingles might be needed.

Chinking made of wood chips or shingles was stuffed diagonally in the gaps between the logs and covered with daubing, usually a lime mortar mixed with clay, mud, or sand. Some builders used only a mortar mix, which wasn’t as weather tight in the long run.

The chimney was often made of stone, either naturally formed or shaped with hammer and chisel to form blocks. Some homes had a stick-and-mud chimney lined with clay. While not ideal, they were relatively easy to put together.

Icon of the Ozarks
The Fincher family by their single pen log cabin, near Maguiretown  (Washington County, Arkansas), mid 1890s.

The Fincher family by their single pen log cabin, near Maguiretown (Washington County), mid 1890s. From left: John, Nora, Indiana, Charles, and Kate Fincher. Tom Fincher Collection (S-83-139-13)

Life in a single-pen log cabin was cramped, especially for a large family. Eating, sleeping, and other activities all happened in the same space. Furniture and personal belongings, including clothes, were kept to a minimum. In a house with two pens, one served as a general living area while the other held the kitchen and dining room. Folks might sleep in either room or in a loft, if they had one. During summer, doors and windows were thrown open to catch a cooling breeze. When winter winds blew through the chinking, even a blazing fire might not keep the house warm enough.

Changing Times

Early Ozarkers were recyclers. Rather than build new houses, they added onto their existing homes. Cramped single pen cabins soon became dogtrots or double-pen houses. Lean-to rooms made of sawn boards were tacked on for additional space, further obscuring the footprint of the original pens. For added protection from the elements, wide weatherboards made of planked wood were attached horizontally to the home’s exterior.

As families prospered and earned enough cash to purchase milled lumber, they added siding and fancy trim to their home to give it a modern appearance. By the early 20th century many log homes had been transformed, buried deep within the walls of an enlarged, up-to-date house.

If a family built a new home, the old log building was often used as a farm building or for storage. In 1898 abandoned log cabins were pressed into service as temporary homes for the newest settlers to the Ozarks—the Italian immigrants of Tontitown (Washington County).

End of an Era

Log-home construction lessened by the 1880s, especially in the more populated areas of Northwest Arkansas. The availability of milled lumber, cash income, and modern architectural styles prompted the switch to the frame-style housing of today.

It wasn’t until the 1920s and 1930s that another wave of log-building construction began. As New York’s rustic Adirondack architectural style came into vogue nationwide, it was often used for vacation cottages. During the Great Depression, when several area state parks were constructed under the Works Progress Administration, recreational cabins and other structures were built using a simplified Lincoln Log-type architecture, along the lines of the Adirondack style. Impoverished families, especially in rural areas, were sometimes forced to build log homes for shelter. Compared to those of their ancestors, the structures were inelegant and crudely built. The log-building tradition had been lost.

An Icon of the Ozarks
The Arkansas Traveler by Currier & Ives, 1870, after a painting by Edward Payson Washburn.

The Arkansas Traveler by Currier and Ives, 1870, after a painting by Edward Payson Washburn. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-2345)

The log cabin has come to symbolize the Ozarks, in both positive and negative ways. It’s been used as a branding tool, a stereotype, and a way to communicate a sentimental sense of a simpler time.

In the mid 1800s stories and images depicting the “Arkansas Traveler” were popular nationwide. The tale made fun of a hapless wanderer coming across a shiftless family and their rude log cabin in the wilds of Arkansas. In the late 1960s investors built the backwoods theme park of Dogpatch over in Marble Falls (Newton and Boone Counties). Based on Al Capp’s hillbilly comic strip “Lil’ Abner,” the park featured numerous log cabins gathered from the surrounding hills. On the 1960s television show, The Beverly Hillbillies, the Clampett family so missed their Ozark home that they built a cabin behind their fancy mansion.

William Hope “Coin” Harvey of Monte Ne (Benton County) may have been the first person in the area to use a log building as a marketing tool. In 1905 he completed a massive log hotel known as Missouri Row as a way to attract visitors to his resort. Over in Western Grove (Newton County) in the 1920s, Mrs. Poort’s Tourist Court featured Adirondack-style cabins made of round logs for visitors. No doubt they were economical to build, but their rustic charm and novelty said “Ozark” to Grace Poort’s customers. For the past few decades the House of Webster in Rogers (Benton County) has used a log cabin as retail space to sell its line of preserves and other food products.

Log buildings can still be found, usually unoccupied, along back roads or preserved at area historical institutions. That they still exist today is a testament to the skilled craftsmen who built these sturdy structures for their families and communities, using a few simple tools and materials gathered from forest and field.

Icon of the Ozarks
The Fincher family by their single pen log cabin, near Maguiretown  (Washington County, Arkansas), mid 1890s.

The Fincher family by their single pen log cabin, near Maguiretown (Washington County), mid 1890s. From left: John, Nora, Indiana, Charles, and Kate Fincher. Tom Fincher Collection (S-83-139-13)

Life in a single-pen log cabin was cramped, especially for a large family. Eating, sleeping, and other activities all happened in the same space. Furniture and personal belongings, including clothes, were kept to a minimum. In a house with two pens, one served as a general living area while the other held the kitchen and dining room. Folks might sleep in either room or in a loft, if they had one. During summer, doors and windows were thrown open to catch a cooling breeze. When winter winds blew through the chinking, even a blazing fire might not keep the house warm enough.

Changing Times

Early Ozarkers were recyclers. Rather than build new houses, they added onto their existing homes. Cramped single pen cabins soon became dogtrots or double-pen houses. Lean-to rooms made of sawn boards were tacked on for additional space, further obscuring the footprint of the original pens. For added protection from the elements, wide weatherboards made of planked wood were attached horizontally to the home’s exterior.

As families prospered and earned enough cash to purchase milled lumber, they added siding and fancy trim to their home to give it a modern appearance. By the early 20th century many log homes had been transformed, buried deep within the walls of an enlarged, up-to-date house.

If a family built a new home, the old log building was often used as a farm building or for storage. In 1898 abandoned log cabins were pressed into service as temporary homes for the newest settlers to the Ozarks—the Italian immigrants of Tontitown (Washington County).

End of an Era

Log-home construction lessened by the 1880s, especially in the more populated areas of Northwest Arkansas. The availability of milled lumber, cash income, and modern architectural styles prompted the switch to the frame-style housing of today.

It wasn’t until the 1920s and 1930s that another wave of log-building construction began. As New York’s rustic Adirondack architectural style came into vogue nationwide, it was often used for vacation cottages. During the Great Depression, when several area state parks were constructed under the Works Progress Administration, recreational cabins and other structures were built using a simplified Lincoln Log-type architecture, along the lines of the Adirondack style. Impoverished families, especially in rural areas, were sometimes forced to build log homes for shelter. Compared to those of their ancestors, the structures were inelegant and crudely built. The log-building tradition had been lost.

An Icon of the Ozarks
The Arkansas Traveler by Currier & Ives, 1870, after a painting by Edward Payson Washburn.

The Arkansas Traveler by Currier and Ives, 1870, after a painting by Edward Payson Washburn. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-2345)

The log cabin has come to symbolize the Ozarks, in both positive and negative ways. It’s been used as a branding tool, a stereotype, and a way to communicate a sentimental sense of a simpler time.

In the mid 1800s stories and images depicting the “Arkansas Traveler” were popular nationwide. The tale made fun of a hapless wanderer coming across a shiftless family and their rude log cabin in the wilds of Arkansas. In the late 1960s investors built the backwoods theme park of Dogpatch over in Marble Falls (Newton and Boone Counties). Based on Al Capp’s hillbilly comic strip “Lil’ Abner,” the park featured numerous log cabins gathered from the surrounding hills. On the 1960s television show, The Beverly Hillbillies, the Clampett family so missed their Ozark home that they built a cabin behind their fancy mansion.

William Hope “Coin” Harvey of Monte Ne (Benton County) may have been the first person in the area to use a log building as a marketing tool. In 1905 he completed a massive log hotel known as Missouri Row as a way to attract visitors to his resort. Over in Western Grove (Newton County) in the 1920s, Mrs. Poort’s Tourist Court featured Adirondack-style cabins made of round logs for visitors. No doubt they were economical to build, but their rustic charm and novelty said “Ozark” to Grace Poort’s customers. For the past few decades the House of Webster in Rogers (Benton County) has used a log cabin as retail space to sell its line of preserves and other food products.

Log buildings can still be found, usually unoccupied, along back roads or preserved at area historical institutions. That they still exist today is a testament to the skilled craftsmen who built these sturdy structures for their families and communities, using a few simple tools and materials gathered from forest and field.

Photo Gallery

Construction
Cabin raising at Onda community (also known as Dripping Springs) near Prairie Grove (Washington County,Arkansas), about 1910.

Cabin raising at Onda community (also known as Dripping Springs) near Prairie Grove (Washington County), circa 1910. Lewis McAdoo (center, behind upright pole) and his son Ulysses (seated on log being raised, second from left). Ray McAdoo Collection (S-92-169-5)

When a cabin was built, the community came together to help. Men worked, woman cooked and visited, and children played. To build the walls, long skids made from young trees were angled against the structure. Logs were pushed and pulled up them into place. These logs are planked, meaning that only two (opposite) sides were hewn flat, rather than all four sides. Skill was needed to shape the ends of the logs with an ax in order to join the corners together.


James and Ann Eliza Counts McDonald, Thorney (Madison County, Arkansas), about 1900

James and Ann Eliza Counts McDonald, Thorney (Madison County), circa 1900. Gary King Collection (S-97-2-151)

A chopping ax was used to score the side of the log as part of the first step in shaping it. Once the scores had been made, the wood between them was chipped out and the side made flat with a broadax. The score marks are still visible on this cabin. The door is simple, made with sawn boards.


Granvil Jameson, Bowen Township (Madison County, Arkansas), about 1911.

Granvil Jameson, Bowen Township (Madison County), circa 1911. Jerry Officer Collection (S-2000-1-131)

Half-dovetail corner notching was the most common form of notching in the Arkansas Ozarks. It created a sturdy corner. Once the logs were in place, chinking materials (big wood chips or shingles; see photo below) were wedged between the logs and covered with daubing, a lime mortar mixed with clay, mud, or sand. Sometimes only a mortar mix was used, which wasn’t as weather tight. In the top photo, the building appears to have interior sheathing made of wide boards. On the exterior, wood sticks were added between the logs to further keep out wind; they may have been daubed over at one time.

 

Fred, Martha, and Nellie Hann, Friendship community near West Fork (Washington County, Arkansas), circa 1907.

Fred, Martha, and Nellie Hann, Friendship community near West Fork (Washington County), circa 1907. Elsie Cress Young Collection (S-85-129-33)


Niccum family, Springdale (Washington County, Arkansas), 1900s.

Niccum family, Springdale (Washington County), 1900s. Nancy Moore Niccum (fourth from right) stands with her sons, Abe and John (third and eighth from right). Bobbie Lynch Collection (S-77-53-28)

The cabin on the left was probably built in the 1850s; the rough addition was added later. The fact that it’s sheathed with sawn lumber in a board-and-batten pattern may indicate a frame structure rather than log. Rather than build a second stone chimney, a metal flue from a wood stove pokes through the roof. Early Ozarkers often added to existing buildings rather than build new.


Building the Work and Play School, Delaney (Madison County, Arkansas), early 1930s.

Building the Work and Play School, Delaney (Madison County), early 1930s. Mary Mullen Collection (S-2003-14)

In 1930 teacher Mary Guilbeau moved from Dallas to Delaney to establish a private school so rural Arkansas students could learn the classics along with their regular studies. She persuaded the folks in Delaney to donate land and build a log schoolhouse. Guilbeau especially admired the work of woodworker Jimmie Wilson who shaped the logs with a broadax. He’d mark the spot with his big toe and then move back just before the ax fell, whacking the exact spot where his toe had been. Unlike the log buildings of earlier generations, the school was built with round logs and saddle notches at the corners.

Single Pen
Single pen log cabin, possibly the Strain Community (Washington County), early 1900s.

Single pen log cabin, possibly the Strain Community (Washington County), early 1900s. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-4816)

The single pen was a one-room structure with a chimney on the gable end. It’s possible that this cabin was built by the Strain family, which settled near the Middle Fork of the White River in the early 1830s. Like most homes at the time, the front door faced the road. Seen above the door are the ends of the floor joists for the second floor or loft. Half-dovetail notches are used at the corners.


George Daniels’ single pen log cabin (with a second single pen built close by), near Sulphur Springs (Benton County, Arkansas), late 1890s

George Daniels’ single pen log cabin (with a second single pen built close by), near Sulphur Springs (Benton County), late 1890s. Lucy Daniels (left) with her daughter-in-law, Idonia. Jim Buckley Collection (S-85-60-2)

The stick-and-mud chimney with its clay lining was easy to build. Should the chimney catch on fire a long pole, kept nearby, was used to push the burning structure away from the house. The cabin on the left appears to use conventional rafters to support the roof. On the right, logs running the length of the cabin are used. The shingles are nailed directly to them. Overhanging log ends protrude from the building’s corners. Normally they would be trimmed flush with the wall to quickly shed rainwater.


Melania and Pier Antonio Maestri at their single pen log cabin, Tontitown (Washington County, Arkansas), about 1900.

Melania and Pier Antonio Maestri at their single pen log cabin, Tontitown (Washington County), about 1900. Richard Roso Collection (S-82-78-21)

In 1898 the Maestri family was among the first to settle Tontitown. They were part of a group of Italians who immigrated to Arkansas to begin a new life. They lived in abandoned cabins and outbuildings until they could build their own homes. Some families shared a single home or log barn. Seen above the door are the ends of the floor joists which have been mortised into the logs to create a second floor or loft. Half-dovetail notches are used at the corners. A second door, unusual for a home this size, aided cross ventilation.


Mrs. Loyd Cooksey and her daughter, Newton County, Arkansas, 1933–1935.

Argie Cooksey and her daughter Ivis, Newton County, 1933–1935. Opal and Ernest Nicholson, photographers. Katie McCoy Collection (S-95-181-84)

Mrs. Cooksey and another woman built this ramshackle house during the Great Depression, at a time when people made do however they could. While the structure doesn’t show the same level of construction skills as log cabins built a century earlier, no doubt it served as a welcome home.

Double Pen
John Latta’s two-story double pen log home, Prairie Grove Battlefield State Park (Washington County,Arkansas), about 1990.

John Latta’s two-story double pen log home, Prairie Grove Battlefield State Park (Washington County), about 1990. Mary McGimsey, photographer. Shiloh Museum Collection (S-90-24-1)

This impressive four-room structure was built in 1834 in the Vineyard community, not far from today’s border with Oklahoma. It was moved to the battlefield in 1958. Usually a double pen is a single-story building, made of two individual pens with chimneys on either side. In this case it may be that the pens were skillfully connected together, with only a single log wall between them. Latta and his enslaved workers, Dan and Ben, were talented craftsmen who built homes, cabinets, and wagons. The home’s original shingles, cut from unseasoned oak and boiled in tallow (animal fat) to make them water repellent, lasted over sixty years.


Samuel Merritt Bland’s home, Larue (Benton County), about 1903

Samuel Merritt Bland’s home, Larue (Benton County, Arkansas), about 1903. Jewel Dye (left) with Amanda, Merritt, and Alonzo Bland. Betty Rendon Collection (S-2012-124-2)

The double doors and chimneys at both ends indicate this building was once a double pen log home. By adding clapboard siding and whitewashing the chimneys, the homeowner has updated the look of his home, making it seem like a newer, frame-style structure.


 

C. A. Linebarger’s summer home, Bella Vista (Benton County, Arkansas), late 1920s.

C. A. Linebarger’s summer home, Bella Vista (Benton County), late 1920s. Bella Vista Historical Museum Collection (S-82-199-105)

The front part of this two-story structure (originally a double pen) was built in 1853 by Jabez T. Hale. It featured four rooms upstairs and four downstairs. In 1926 Linebarger moved it a couple hundred yards to its present location, remodeled it (leaving only one front door), added on a fashionable Adirondack/Craftsmen-style entry, and built a large addition in the rear.

Saddlebag
Henry Webber’s saddlebag log home, Webber Mountain near West Fork (Washington County), about 1902.

Henry Webber’s saddlebag log home, Webber Mountain near West Fork (Washington County), about 1902. Washington County Observer/Vita Vines Collection (S-85-111-101)

The saddlebag was made of two pens with a single chimney between them. Although the image is faint, there appears to be an arched screen to keep out debris over the top of the chimney, which may actually be two chimneys placed back-to-back. The double front doors are typical of two-pen log buildings. Half-dovetail notches are used at the corners. A log outbuilding stands behind the house.

Dogtrot
George S. Crudup’s dogtrot home, Fayetteville (Washington County, Arkansas), about 1900.

George S. Crudup’s dogtrot home, Fayetteville (Washington County), about 1900. George (10th from left) with his siblings, children, and grandchildren. Karen Weiss Collection (S-2000-111-17)

The dogtrot was made of two single pens connected by a covered breezeway, with chimneys on the gable ends. Various clues indicate this image was taken behind the home—the covered well, the lack of doors, the small chimney (for a wood stove) poking through the roof, and the more-refined picket fence seen through the breezeway.


The John Calvin Stockburger family peeling apples, Winslow (Washington County, Arkansas), 1905.

The John Calvin Stockburger family peeling apples, Winslow (Washington County), 1905. From left: Annie, Martha, Calvin (in front), and John. Robert G. Winn Collection (S-96-162-21)

The front of this dogtrot house has been sheathed in clapboards in an effort to modernize it, but the walls of the breezeway still show the home’s original log construction. On the porch and in the breezeway are chairs, wood boxes, and a basket, demonstrating how outdoor spaces were used for work, relaxation, visits with neighbors, and storage.

Miscellaneous Buildings
Robert Light’s log barn, Pleasant Hill Township (Newton County, Arkansas), 1912.

Robert Light’s log barn, Pleasant Hill Township (Newton County), 1912. Cora Humble Collection (S-88-135-6)

Barns and outbuildings were sometimes built quickly, without the precision that might go into a home. The main floor could be used for sheltering livestock and storing equipment and wagons. The loft was used to store hay. Roofs often extended far beyond the walls to provide additional shelter.


Nathan Combs’ log barn, Fayetteville (Washington County, Arkansas), about 1971.

Nathan Combs’ log barn, Fayetteville (Washington County), about 1971. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-934)

Some of the logs for this barn may have come from Combs’ first home, built sometime around 1861. His original plan was to build a substantial two-story brick home (which he eventually did), but then came the turmoil of the Civil War. The barn has a mix of planked logs (hewn flat on two sides) and round logs, some still with their bark. The first rows of logs are joined with half-dovetail notched corners; further up some of the logs appear to be saddle notched. These details indicate that different hands worked on this structure over the years. The barn was torn down in the early 1990s.


Black Oak School, near Elkins (Washington County, Arkansas), circa 1895.

Black Oak School, near Elkins (Washington County), circa 1895. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-1052)

While most homes had front doors along the length of the building, the doors to schools and churches were often placed on the short, gable-wall side to better accommodate rows of school desks and pews.  The school was established sometime around 1883 and was also used as a church.  The log building was replaced with a frame structure in 1907.


Missouri Row Hotel, Monte Ne (Benton County, Arkansas), circa 1908.

Missouri Row Hotel, Monte Ne (Benton County), circa 1908. Speece and Aaron, photographers. Mrs. Kenneth L. Tillotson Collection (S-90-91-9)

Missouri Row was designed by noted Rogers architect A. O. Clarke. Completed in 1905, the building was 46-feet wide, 305-feet long, and used 8,000 logs. It and its sister, Oklahoma Row, built a few years later, were said to be the largest log buildings in the world. The remains of the log portion of Oklahoma Row can be found up the road from its original location near the Beaver Lake boat ramp at Monte Ne.

Credits

“A Way of Life in Early Shiloh.” Shiloh Springdale, 1878-1978. Springdale, Arkansas, Centennial Committee, 1978.

“Colorful Ozark Landmark [Latta House] is Saved for Posterity,” unknown undated newspaper, probably mid 1950s. Shiloh Museum research files.

Barnett, Kathryn Robbins. “Our Bella Vista Community Then and Now.” Benton County Pioneer Vol. 16, No. 4 (Fall 1971).

Deane, Ernie. “Pioneer Village Growing at Prairie Grove.” Arkansas Gazette, 5-15-1960.

Donat, Pat. “An Ante-Bellum Home.” Flashback (Washington County Historical Society) Vol. 21, No. 1 (March 1971).

Faris, Paul. Ozark Log Cabin Folks: The Way They Were. Rose Publishing Co.: Little Rock, 1983.

Ford, Edsel. “Park Village: Prairie Grove residents are reassembling log cabins in the battlefield park area.” Arkansas Democrat, 8-31-1958.

Hogue, Wayman. Back Yonder. Knickerbocker Press: New Rochelle, NY, 1932.

Lord, Allyn, and the Rogers Historical Museum. Historic Monte Ne. Arcadia Publishing: Charleston, SC, 2006.

Moore, Marjorie. “How the Pioneers Lived.” Flashback (Washington County Historical Society) Vol. 5, No. 2 (April 1955).

Phillips, George H., ed. The Bella Vista Story. Bella Vista Historical Society: Bella Vista, AR, 1980.

Rogers Daily News. “Rural life in county was typical.” 6-29-1976.

Salsbury, Clarice. “Black Oak 41.” School Days, School Days . . . The History of Education in Washington County, 1830-1950. Washington County Retired Teachers Association, circa 1986.

Sizemore, Jean. Ozark Vernacular Houses: A Study of Rural Homeplaces in the Arkansas Ozarks, 1830-1930. University of Arkansas Press: Fayetteville, 1994.

Thompson, Alan. Email to Shiloh Museum staff regarding Latta House, 10-28-2012.

Ulmer, Louise. “Mrs. Guilbeau’s Work and Play School,” Louise Ulmer, Shiloh Scrapbook (Shiloh Museum of Ozark History) Vol. 23, No. 1 (Spring 2004).

Wigginton, Eliot, ed. “Building a Log Cabin.” The Foxfire Book. Anchor Books: New York, 1972.

Wolf, John Quincy Sr. Life in the Leatherwoods: An Ozark Boyhood Remembered. August House: Little Rock, 1988.

Worthen, William B. “Arkansas Traveler.” CALS Encyclopedia of Arkansas  [accessed 10/2012]

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