Ozark White Lime Company stock certificate #1, made out to Frank O. Gulley, Ozark White Lime vice-president, November 1, 1902. 

Lime is an inexpensive product.  Its weight and bulk made long-distance transportation by wagon unprofitable. Because railroads offered a cost-effective way to move mountains of lime, generally only those limestone deposits located near rail lines were exploited. Over twenty lime companies are known to have been in operation in Northwest Arkansas in the late 1800s and early 1900s, primarily in Benton and Washington counties. The two largest were the Rogers White Lime Company and the Ozark White Lime Company.

Rogers White Lime—Begun in 1893, fifty men worked the quarry and kiln at Diamond Springs, east of Rogers. Businessman (and later company president) Fleming Fontaine Freeman bought an interest in the company in 1900 and began making improvements, such as purchasing equipment to build shipping barrels in-house. The Diamond Springs plant closed in 1902 when the Cross Hollow plant came online. Cross Hollow had three kilns and a 1,000-feet-long rail siding along the Monte Ne Railway, allowing it to connect to other shipping points via a Rogers-area railroad line. The company marketed its Lily White Lime brand as 99.4% pure. A steam engine was installed in 1905 to operate the heavy cables needed to pull rock-filled tram cars up a tramway to the tops of the kilns. In 1908 the company shipped out 75,000 barrels of lime in 600 rail cars, valued at $55,000; that year the entire output for eastern Benton County was 125,000 barrels. A steam-powered lime crusher was added in 1913 and two years later, two kilns were erected east of the White River, possibly because the lime was running out at Cross Hollow. Freeman was replaced as president in 1915 after a series of financial blows. The company was on shaky ground as the parent company of the Monte Ne Railway was about to abandon the line. Rogers White Lime entered bankruptcy in 1918.

Ozark White Lime Company ad, Springdale News, December 16, 1904.

Ozark White Lime—The Crescent White Lime Works was founded by John W. Carter in Johnson around 1891, along a massive limestone bluff flanking Clear Creek. In 1897 Fayetteville investors purchased Carter’s operation for $2,500, at a time when the kiln was producing 100 barrels per day. With W. L. Stuckey as president and Frank O. Gulley as vice-president, the company incorporated two years later with a capital stock of $10,000. They changed the name to Ozark White Lime in 1902 and later purchased a second lime plant nearby. By the 1920s the company produced 50,000 barrels annually. In 1923 the company installed an electric hydrating plant, the first in the state. Ozark White Lime doubled its output, processing 40 tons of lime in a ten-hour period. They sold “Clear Creek” quicklime and “Sunshine” hydrated lime. About 100 men worked at the quarries and kilns throughout the year, more if both plants were operating. Cordwood came from Oklahoma, where Gulley owned timberland; the company switched to cheaper natural gas in the 1930s. The plant made 50,000 barrels a year using shipped-in barrel parts. In 1940 the company had forty to fifty workers and sold lime in twelve states. About 50% of its output went to the chemical trade for use in paper mills, city water plants, and oil companies. By the mid 1940s the lime deposits were depleted and the business closed.

“The new electric hydrating plant [at Ozark White Lime] includes a crusher for powdering burned lime, a separator for eliminating all impurities, a five-foot fan or blower, an 80-ton storage bin for ground lime, and another of same capacity for storage of finished hydrated lime, a patent bagging machine that sacks all lime and automatically seals it ready for shipping, three elevators 40 feet high, [and] a 50-foot dust stack topping the plant, giving it a total height of 85 feet. Two men will be employed for sacking . . .”
Fayetteville Daily Democrat, October 13, 1923

Ozark White Lime Company stock certificate #1, made out to Frank O. Gulley Ozark White Lime vice-president, November 1, 1902.

Lime is an inexpensive product.  Its weight and bulk made long-distance transportation by wagon unprofitable. Because railroads offered a cost-effective way to move mountains of lime, generally only those limestone deposits located near rail lines were exploited. Over twenty lime companies are known to have been in operation in Northwest Arkansas in the late 1800s and early 1900s, primarily in Benton and Washington counties. The two largest were the Rogers White Lime Company and the Ozark White Lime Company.

Rogers White Lime—Begun in 1893, fifty men worked the quarry and kiln at Diamond Springs, east of Rogers. Businessman (and later company president) Fleming Fontaine Freeman bought an interest in the company in 1900 and began making improvements, such as purchasing equipment to build shipping barrels in-house. The Diamond Springs plant closed in 1902 when the Cross Hollow plant came online. Cross Hollow had three kilns and a 1,000-feet-long rail siding along the Monte Ne Railway, allowing it to connect to other shipping points via a Rogers-area railroad line. The company marketed its Lily White Lime brand as 99.4% pure. A steam engine was installed in 1905 to operate the heavy cables needed to pull rock-filled tram cars up a tramway to the tops of the kilns. In 1908 the company shipped out 75,000 barrels of lime in 600 rail cars, valued at $55,000; that year the entire output for eastern Benton County was 125,000 barrels. A steam-powered lime crusher was added in 1913 and two years later, two kilns were erected east of the White River, possibly because the lime was running out at Cross Hollow. Freeman was replaced as president in 1915 after a series of financial blows. The company was on shaky ground as the parent company of the Monte Ne Railway was about to abandon the line. Rogers White Lime entered bankruptcy in 1918.

Ozark White Lime Company ad, Springdale News, December 16, 1904.

Ozark White Lime—The Crescent White Lime Works was founded by John W. Carter in Johnson around 1891, along a massive limestone bluff flanking Clear Creek. In 1897 Fayetteville investors purchased Carter’s operation for $2,500, at a time when the kiln was producing 100 barrels per day. With W. L. Stuckey as president and Frank O. Gulley as vice-president, the company incorporated two years later with a capital stock of $10,000. They changed the name to Ozark White Lime in 1902 and later purchased a second lime plant nearby. By the 1920s the company produced 50,000 barrels annually. In 1923 the company installed an electric hydrating plant, the first in the state. Ozark White Lime doubled its output, processing 40 tons of lime in a ten-hour period. They sold “Clear Creek” quicklime and “Sunshine” hydrated lime. About 100 men worked at the quarries and kilns throughout the year, more if both plants were operating. Cordwood came from Oklahoma, where Gulley owned timberland; the company switched to cheaper natural gas in the 1930s. The plant made 50,000 barrels a year using shipped-in barrel parts. In 1940 the company had forty to fifty workers and sold lime in twelve states. About 50% of its output went to the chemical trade for use in paper mills, city water plants, and oil companies. By the mid 1940s the lime deposits were depleted and the business closed.

“The new electric hydrating plant [at Ozark White Lime] includes a crusher for powdering burned lime, a separator for eliminating all impurities, a five-foot fan or blower, an 80-ton storage bin for ground lime, and another of same capacity for storage of finished hydrated lime, a patent bagging machine that sacks all lime and automatically seals it ready for shipping, three elevators 40 feet high, [and] a 50-foot dust stack topping the plant, giving it a total height of 85 feet. Two men will be employed for sacking . . .”
Fayetteville Daily Democrat, October 13, 1923

A lime mine in Johnson (Washington County), about 1908. Marion Mason, photographer. Don Bailey Collection (S-2015-20-5)

Men were needed to quarry the rock, move it to the kilns, cook the lime, crush it, and shovel it into barrels for shipment. Coopers made barrels, blacksmiths shoed horses and made or repaired equipment, and timber cutters provided cordwood for firing kilns and wood for making barrels. Local farmers earned extra money by selling cordwood from newly cleared land or working at the lime plants and quarries during the winter months.

In Johnson, men worked twelve-hour shifts, one starting at noon, the other at midnight. Workers earned fifteen to twenty cents an hour. Many worked six or seven days a week. Because of their relative isolation and the long working days, the larger lime companies built employee housing and operated company stores. At Cross Hollow, workers could rent a house for $1.25 to $1.50 a month. At the Johnson kilns, there were twenty to thirty two-room houses in “Lime Kiln Hollow.” In 1936, J. D. Cordell worked ten-hour days, fifity-five hours a week, for $5.50. Rent was $3.00 a month and a week’s worth of groceries cost $3.00.

A Dangerous Profession
Rockslides, accidents, and burning lime made for hazardous work. In 1904 Bob Wright fell thirty-five feet from a scaffold at a Johnson quarry. The fall fractured his arm and leg, cut off his lower lip, and caused internal injuries. The doctor gave him “little hope of recovery.” Sometime around 1906, a hole was drilled into the rock face at Ozark White Lime and an explosive charge placed inside. It failed to detonate. The next day the foreman held the drill in the same hole as a seventeen-year-old pounded on it with a hammer. After a few blows the drill hit the explosive, killing the foreman and seriously injuring the youth.

Quicklime was dangerous. It irritated a worker’s skin, sometimes causing burns. Former lime-kiln worker Al Luper once recalled, “It would take the hide right off you.” When mixed with water, quicklime creates a violent chemical reaction. Luper recalled seeing patches of lime burning in Clear Creek, on a day the river had overflowed its banks and swept through the lime plant. The creek often played havoc with the kilns. In 1906, 200 barrels of lime were destroyed at the Crystal kiln. The kiln shed nearly caught on fire from the burning lime.

“Neal Alvis was accidentally hurt while at work at the [Crescent] lime kiln last Wednesday. A hammer flew off the handle and struck him on the head inflicting what may yet prove to be a fatal fracture of the skull.”
Springdale News, September 6, 1895

A lime mine in Johnson (Washington County), about 1908. Marion Mason, photographer. Don Bailey Collection (S-2015-20-5)

Men were needed to quarry the rock, move it to the kilns, cook the lime, crush it, and shovel it into barrels for shipment. Coopers made barrels, blacksmiths shoed horses and made or repaired equipment, and timber cutters provided cordwood for firing kilns and wood for making barrels. Local farmers earned extra money by selling cordwood from newly cleared land or working at the lime plants and quarries during the winter months.

In Johnson, men worked twelve-hour shifts, one starting at noon, the other at midnight. Workers earned fifteen to twenty cents an hour. Many worked six or seven days a week. Because of their relative isolation and the long working days, the larger lime companies built employee housing and operated company stores. At Cross Hollow, workers could rent a house for $1.25 to $1.50 a month. At the Johnson kilns, there were twenty to thirty two-room houses in “Lime Kiln Hollow.” In 1936, J. D. Cordell worked ten-hour days, fifity-five hours a week, for $5.50. Rent was $3.00 a month and a week’s worth of groceries cost $3.00.

A Dangerous Profession
Rockslides, accidents, and burning lime made for hazardous work. In 1904 Bob Wright fell thirty-five feet from a scaffold at a Johnson quarry. The fall fractured his arm and leg, cut off his lower lip, and caused internal injuries. The doctor gave him “little hope of recovery.” Sometime around 1906, a hole was drilled into the rock face at Ozark White Lime and an explosive charge placed inside. It failed to detonate. The next day the foreman held the drill in the same hole as a seventeen-year-old pounded on it with a hammer. After a few blows the drill hit the explosive, killing the foreman and seriously injuring the youth.

Quicklime was dangerous. It irritated a worker’s skin, sometimes causing burns. Former lime-kiln worker Al Luper once recalled, “It would take the hide right off you.” When mixed with water, quicklime creates a violent chemical reaction. Luper recalled seeing patches of lime burning in Clear Creek, on a day the river had overflowed its banks and swept through the lime plant. The creek often played havoc with the kilns. In 1906, 200 barrels of lime were destroyed at the Crystal kiln. The kiln shed nearly caught on fire from the burning lime.

“Neal Alvis was accidentally hurt while at work at the [Crescent] lime kiln last Wednesday. A hammer flew off the handle and struck him on the head inflicting what may yet prove to be a fatal fracture of the skull.”
Springdale News, September 6, 1895

The production of quicklime and hydrated lime in Northwest Arkansas started to taper off in Johnson in the 1930s, although the plant remained in operation during World War II. In 1949 Clark and Charles McClinton leased the defunct quarry and operated a rock-crushing plant, producing gravel for road construction. Zero Mountain, Inc., turned the old lime caverns into cold-storage facilities in 1955, which are still in use today. For a time one of the abandoned caverns was the scene of many parties and fraternity initiations.

At Cross Hollow, Bill Branningham built a new plant in 1952 to process agricultural lime, operating the business into the 1960s. Although Rogers White Lime is long gone, the 1905 concrete powerhouse used to power the tram cars still stands. Today the only company in the state still producing quicklime is the Arkansas Lime Company in Batesville.

Marion Mason at the Hanks home, Johnson, circa 1908. Marion Mason, photographer. Don Bailey Collection (S-2010-54-621)

Marion DeKalb Mason (1875–1946) was the long-time Johnson correspondent for the Springdale News. Writing under the penname “Mulkeepmo,” his columns were filled with neighborhood happenings, including news about the lime kilns.

Mason was a prolific and accomplished amateur photographer, shooting images first on glass plate and later on acetate film stock. He delighted in taking photos of family, friends, scenery, and local businesses, often printing the images on postcards and giving them away or mailing them to friends.

Mason lived with his sister and brother-in-law, Maud and Nathan Hanks, and their children in the Hanks home in Johnson, just down the road from the Johnson mill and the lime companies. It’s thanks to his writings and to the many generous folks who have shared his images (including Mason’s relatives) that the Shiloh Museum is able to preserve the rich history of Johnson’s lime industry.

Marion Mason at the Hanks home, Johnson, circa 1908. Marion Mason, photographer. Don Bailey Collection (S-2010-54-621)

Marion DeKalb Mason (1875–1946) was the long-time Johnson correspondent for the Springdale News. Writing under the penname “Mulkeepmo,” his columns were filled with neighborhood happenings, including news about the lime kilns.

Mason was a prolific and accomplished amateur photographer, shooting images first on glass plate and later on acetate film stock. He delighted in taking photos of family, friends, scenery, and local businesses, often printing the images on postcards and giving them away or mailing them to friends.

Mason lived with his sister and brother-in-law, Maud and Nathan Hanks, and their children in the Hanks home in Johnson, just down the road from the Johnson mill and the lime companies. It’s thanks to his writings and to the many generous folks who have shared his images (including Mason’s relatives) that the Shiloh Museum is able to preserve the rich history of Johnson’s lime industry.

Finding reliable information about area lime plants is difficult. Below are the named plants we know about and the communties in which there were plants for which we have no names. If you have information or images about these or other area lime companies, please email our photo archivist/research librarian, Marie Demeroukas.

Sightseer at the lime quarry, Johnson, circa 1908. Marion Mason, photographer. Maudine Sanders Collection (S-97-57-472)

Named Lime Plants

Alba Lime Company—Farmington
• Stock available July 1904; still in existence February 1909
• Three owners at first; company nearly went bankrupt; two owners left but property owner Alfred “Walter” Shreve stayed on
• Located on Goose Creek
• Employed many Italian immigrants from Tontitown
• Manufactured Eagle Brand Lime

Arkansas Lime Company—Benton County
• Had office in Rogers and short-lived plant in Lowell 1889

Arkansas Lime Works—Garfield
• Said to date to 1884; still in existence 1919
• Owned at one point by Peter McKinley

Brightwater Lime Company—Brightwater
• Investors looking for possible locations for new kiln, January 1907
• In existence April 1908
• J. D. Torbett, president

Crescent White Lime Works—Johnson
• In existence July 1891
• Owned by John W. Carter
• 20,000 bushels produced 1891; 35,000-40,000 bushels 1892; kiln could produce 80–100 barrels every 24 hours
• Lime shipped to various towns in Arkansas and to Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma)
• Kiln rebuilt 1895 following fire
• Stone pier supporting tramway failed January 1897
• Purchased by Frank O. Gulley and E. A. Gillett December 1897; incorporated July 1899 with W. L. Stuckey, president; Frank O. Gulley, vice-president
• Renamed Ozark White Lime 1902

Crystal Lime Company—Johnson
• In existence September 1901, when it was said to be planning second kiln
• Still in existence February 1906

Excelsior White Lime Company—Prairie Grove
• In existence March 1907; still in existence October 1937

Fayetteville White Lime Company (a.k.a. Beane Lime Company)—Johnson
• Incorporated 1904 with C. P. Boles, president; S. C. Beane, vice-president
• Sold new kiln 1906 to Hays and Woods, who moved it to Prairie Grove
• Plant leased to “firm down south” October 1907, after being idle

Morrison White Lime Works—Garfield
• A booming business for several years, around 1900
• Absorbed by Ozark White Lime early 1900s

Ozark White Lime Company—Johnson
• Crescent White Lime renamed Ozark White Lime August 1902; bought Springdale Lime and Morrison White Lime around same time
• Operated five or six kilns at two lime plants near Clear Creek
• Opened Arkansas’ first lime-hydrating plant 1923
• Established rock-crushing plant 1938
• Ended production mid-1940s

Rogers Lime and Water-Works Company—Rogers
• Possibly incorporated January 1885
• In existence 1894

Rogers White Lime Company (a.k.a. Southern Lime Company?)—Johnson
• Located on the “Beane farm” (former Fayetteville White Lime plant)
• Started operation January 1908; idled March 1908
• Tramway blown down 1909; company never recovered

Rogers White Lime Company—Rogers
• Operated plant in Diamond Springs area 1893-1902
• Opened Cross Hollow plant (a.k.a. Limedale) 1902, with three kilns
• Product known as Lily White Lime
• Fleming Freeman president early 1900s to about 1917
• Steam-powered rock crusher added 1913
• By 1917 had additional kilns in Gravette and Grove, Oklahoma
• Entered bankruptcy 1918 due to financial woes and looming loss of rail service

Springdale Lime Company—Johnson
• In existence May 1901
• Absorbed by Ozark White Lime early 1900s

Tonti Lime Company—Washington County
• Incorporated November 1907 with Tontitown residents Luigi Tomiello, president; Giuseppe Roso, vice-president
• In existence 1913

Additional Lime Plants (Names Unknown)

Bethel Grove
• Possibly started 1902; lasted about 10 years

Brightwater
• In existence 1892

Garfield
• Possibly predecessor of Morrison White Lime
• Located on tributary of Sugar Creek; kiln on north side, quarry on south
• Tramways used to take stone from quarry to kiln, and from kiln to railway
• Operated by Peel and Benn, February 1884–November 1886
• Produced 86,300 barrels of lime and 50 rail carloads of bulk lime
• H. S. Dean owned business 1887–1888
• Shipped 15,000 barrels of lime and a few bulk carloads to towns in Arkansas and Kansas
• Plant idled Fall 1888

Gravette
• In existence by 1900s
• Lime shipped via Kansas City Southern Railway
• Deposit depleted by Ozark White Lime, 1910s or 1920s

Eureka Springs (north of Dairy Spring Hollow)
• In existence before 1891
• Burned small quantities of lime for Eureka Springs market

Eureka Springs (southwest of town)
• Owned by John Morehouse
• 9,000 bushels of lime burned 1890–1892
• Manufactured lime for Eureka Springs market

Harrison
• East of town on north bank of Crooked Creek
• In existence 1890

Johnson
• Said to be in operation around 1880
• First five years only a few hundred bushels produced for local use
• L. D. Middleton early owner
• Draw kiln built about 1887; over next three years 20,000+ bushels of lime were burned and shipped via Frisco to Ft. Smith, Van Buren, etc.
• Possibly became Crescent White Lime Works 1891 or earlier

Sulphur Springs
• Possibly in existence around 1910

Washington County (northern bluff of Baxter Mountain)
• Long abandoned by 1893

Washington County (W. F. Dowell place)
• Long abandoned by 1893

West Fork
• Possibly in operation 1893

Jeans. Mended with a centuries-old decorative Japanese stitching method known as sashiko (“little stabs”), 2020, by Bea Apple, Trisha Logan, and Sadie McDonald of Hillfolk, a natural fiber and textile store in Bentonville. The process took about thirty hours and uses a running stitch (a line of small, even, in-and-out stitches) to create patterns. Courtesy Hillfolk

Bea Apple and Trisha Logan, Bentonville
Bea and Trisha are co-owners of Hillfolk, a store in the 8th Street Market which specializes in natural fibers and textiles and offers classes in contemporary and traditional fiber arts. They first became interested in sashiko, a decorative stitching technique, while researching Japanese textiles dyed with indigo (a plant). The pair are mostly self-taught, learning from books and through workshops. They find the art of sashiko meditative and love to “breathe new life into [their] favorite clothes by not hiding the holes and tears, but by drawing attention to the worn areas with beautiful, decorative stitching.”

Close-up of shasiko stiching on jeans.

Dress. Remade from two dresses (one from the 1950s, the other from the 1980s) by Aubrey Costello of the Wesley area, 2020. Decorative additions include overdyed cloth, an embossed (stamped) design, old buttons, and a sleeve based on a 1968 clothing pattern. The dress was to be included in a show during the Spring 2020 Northwest Arkansas Fashion Week, which was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Courtesy Aubrey Costello

Aubrey Costello, Wesley
Aubrey has been sewing since age seven and now enjoys the role of storyteller with their work in costuming and fashion design. A vintage clothing enthusiast who objects to today’s disposable fashions, they hope to combat the wastefulness of the apparel industry by transforming lovely but damaged old clothes into “something that can be worn and appreciated, while preserving and honoring their original construction and aesthetic” (style). They use a variety of fine-sewing techniques to create original garments for all genders, sizes, and body types.

Electric Guitar. Made from a cigar box by Darla Gray-Winter of Holiday Island, 2020. The bottle caps (lower right corner) control volume. Courtesy Darla Gray-Winter

Darla Gray-Winter, Holiday Island
Darla is an artist and luthier (maker of stringed instruments) who began customizing guitars for fun. After receiving professional training in the craft she took up making cigar-box guitars as a way to practice her fretwork technique. Frets are the raised elements on a guitar’s neck. She enjoyed making cigar-box guitars so much that they are now her specialty.

Residence. Dustin and April Griffith’s shipping-container home, Eureka Springs (Carroll County), 2020. April Griffith, photographer.

Dustin and April Griffith, Eureka Springs
Dustin and April, whose degrees are in design, have long been attracted to the industrial look. They built their home out of six shipping containers and furnished it with repurposed objects as a way of making something new from cast-off items which have a history of their own. The containers’ many trips across the ocean are seen on their walls through handwritten notes in multiple languages. With little published about the specifics of building such homes, the couple learned along the way. Skilled family and friends helped, some trading services (such as plumbing) for what the pair could offer (motorcycle repair). One of the fun features about the house is that containers can be added when needed, just like building with Lego® blocks.

Learn more about the Griffith home in the “Large-Scale Upcyclers, Then and Now” section below.

Miniature Cabinet. Made from matchboxes and office-supply boxes by Liz Lester of Fayetteville, 2019. Courtesy Liz Lester

Liz Lester, Fayetteville
Liz is a life-long illustrator who began making constructions out of found items beginning about 2004. Witnessing the rapid growth of an industrial landfill during walks through a nearby neighborhood inspired the thought, “let’s not pitch any more than we have to in that hole.” She’s especially drawn to boxes and containers, including Altoids® breath-mint tins, which she has transformed into little holiday gifts for friends.

Cabinet. Drawers made from paint-thinner cans by Beth Lowery of Fayetteville, about 1998, and used by Liz Lester for seed storage. Courtesy Liz Lester

Beth Lowrey, Fayetteville
Beth is a woodworker who began turning old objects into new in the late 1990s, after having saved a collection of used paint-thinner cans because they seemed useful. One day she saw their potential as cabinet drawers. Since then she has turned a paint can into a birdhouse, broken dishes into stepping stones, and a torn-apart chest of drawers found in an alley into a new chest of drawers, using old tin-ceiling tiles as side panels. Sometimes she’s inspired by the material, other times an idea sends her to her collection of saved bits and pieces.

Bench. Made from discarded shop lights and lumber scraps by Beth Lowery of Fayetteville, 2020. Courtesy Beth Lowrey

Stool. Made from cardboard boxes and paperboard pads and corner inserts by Cardi B. Ord of Bentonville, 2020. Courtesy M. DemOpp

Cardi B. Ord, Bentonville
Cardi has been making objects for home, work, and friends her entire life, from macaroni “pictures” in Kindergarten to a fern stand made from tree branches and a teddy bear sewn from men’s suiting fabric, which itself was first reused as part of a (now tattered) quilt. She’s also a long-time recycler, beginning in 1970 when her Brownie troop participated in a newspaper drive during the first Earth Day celebration. Her crafting and recycling interests mean that her home workshop is full of odds and ends that she’s saved over the years, just waiting for a chance to shine.

Tote Bag. Crocheted from plastic grocery bags and newspaper sleeves by Kathryn A. Sampson Stinson of Fayetteville, 2020. The balls of “plarn” (plastic yarn) are made by chaining together strips of plastic. About 105 white bags and 57 yellow sleeves were used to make this tote bag. Courtesy Kathryn A. Sampson Stinson

Kathryn A. Sampson Stinson, Fayetteville
Kathryn’s grandmother taught her how to crochet in the late 1970s. She began working with “plarn” (plastic yarn) in 2011, when she was inspired to make ground mats for use by folks sleeping in shelters and tents. Making them was a bit challenging, so she turned to tote bags. She thinks of her work as a combination of craft project, public service, and environmental responsibility.

Ada Lee Smith with her Christmas presents, Fayetteville, December 25, 1931. Carl Smith, photographer. Ada Lee Shook Collection (S-98-85-192)

Prior to the Industrial Revolution of the mid 1800s, most children had just a toy or two. But with the advent of mechanization, the growth of the middle class, the emerging concept of leisure time, and the mass-marketing of toys at Christmas time, playthings took on greater importance and children had more of them. Toys became even more plentiful following World War II as consumerism grew and the baby boom emphasized youth culture. Today’s parents may stand in line for days—and occasionally get into brawls—so that their child can find the latest toy under the tree on Christmas morning.

Jimmy Parson with toys, Carroll County, 1950s. Ardella Braswell Vaughan Collection (S-88-252-32)

Railey Steele on a homemade barrel pony, Gravette, July 4, 1938. Sally Kirby Hartman Collection (S-95-43-151)

Toys can be simple or complex, store-bought or homemade. Long ago in the Ozarks, girls played with dolls made from fabric scraps, corn husks, or empty spools of thread. Boys had stick horses and slingshots made from tree branches.

The coming of the railroad to Northwest Arkansas in 1881 allowed stores to carry a large variety of manufactured toys, some of which were imported from Germany. National mail-order businesses like Sears, Roebuck and Co., which offered its first catalog in 1888, made toys even easier for children to dream of, and more affordable for parents to purchase.

Unidentified boy in a pedal car, Fayetteville, circa 1923. Carl Smith, photographer. Ada Lee Shook Collection (S-98-85-1808)

Unidentified girl with her mammy doll, probably Northwest Arkansas, circa 1900. Ron Hoskins Collection (S-99-2-784)

Toys often reflect society’s values and cultural attitudes, for good or for bad. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, African Americans were frequently depicted by toy manufacturers in child-like, comical, and certainly derogatory ways.

Minority and immigrant groups were often portrayed with exaggerated physical features or character traits. Scholars believe that such ethnic stereotypes were a way for the dominant white society to portray itself as superior, especially in the face of increasing non-Protestant immigration and rapid social change. Massive immigration was brought to an end in 1924 with the passage of restrictive laws. Toys gradually became less stereotypical; instead, assimilation and tolerance were emphasized, although there is still far to go.

Bess, Blanche, and Bernice Hanks with their baby dolls, probably Northwest Arkansas, circa 1900. Marion Mason, photographer. Phillip Steele Collection (S-78-34-3B)

For centuries, toys were designed to teach adult roles and skills to children and instill moral values. For instance, by pretending to dress and feed their dolls, girls were thought to learn how to be good mothers. Boys picked up building skills while playing with their construction sets. Learning through play was even more important during the latter half of the 1800s due to the growth of the middle class. The luxury of leisure time meant that children had less practical knowledge of life skills such as caring for siblings or helping on the farm or in the family trade.

Little League game, Springdale, July 1956. Howard Clark, photographer. Caroline Price Clark Collection (S-2001-82-463)

Ball games have been around for a long time, but baseball stemmed from a game played in New York in the 1840s. The growth of sports and the desire to organize into teams and leagues began after the Civil War, as people felt the urge to create their own communities within busy, isolating cities. Leagues for adults soon formed after the birth of baseball in the 1840s, but children were often left to play ball in the street. In the 1920s teenage leagues began, but boys had to wait until 1938 when Carl Stotz organized ball games for youngsters in Williamsport, Pennsylvania.  He hoped Little League would create good citizens by teaching fair play, teamwork, and sportsmanship.

Bentonville baseball team, circa 1912. The team was part of a regional African-American league ranging from Fort Smith, Arkansas, to Joplin, Missouri. Back, from left: Thad Wayne, Marion “Sonny” Finney, and Lloyd Trout. Front, from left: Yates Claypool, Virge Black, and John Barker. Elizabeth Robertson Collection (S-95-7-42)

At the turn of the 20th century, team sports were considered a good way for immigrants to assimilate into mainstream culture. Prevailing social attitudes kept African Americans segregated, forcing them to create their own teams and leagues in order to play competitive baseball.  Segregation in American sports started breaking down when Jackie Robinson broke the baseball color line in 1947.

Berryville girls’ basketball team versus Eureka Springs, Carroll County, 1913. Carroll County Heritage Center Collection (S-84-236-27)

In the latter half of the 19th century, the YMCA, President Theodore Roosevelt, and others promoted the notion of “muscular Christianity.” A commitment to manliness and health was important to overcome what was considered to be an increasingly sedentary, urbanized, and feminized lifestyle. Strenuous and aggressive sports were emphasized.

One way to continue exercising during the winter was by playing basketball, which was invented for this reason in 1891 by YMCA instructor James A. Naismith. Using a soccer ball and peach baskets for nets, the game quickly spread. Soon schools began fielding teams for boys and girls, making basketball the first strenuous, competitive, team sport which was acceptable for women to play.

Golfers practicing their drives, Bella Vista, 1990s. Bella Vista Weekly Collection

The ancient game of golf first became popular in America among the upper class in the late 1800s, when advances like the rubber-centered ball made the game livelier. As was often the case, the middle class followed the lead of the wealthy, with cities building public golf courses. By the 1920s golf was seen as an informal way for professional men to advance their business interests.

Northwest Arkansas had several golf courses by the 1920s, including ones at Monte Ne and Bella Vista. As the century progressed, developers recognized the power of sport. When the old summer resort of Bella Vista was transformed into a vacation and retirement destination in 1960, golf was the main attraction. Then as now, folks could indulge their love of the game by building homes overlooking the golf course.

Mary Parker and her bicycle, Rogers, 1890s. Mrs. Beaton, photographer. Ada Lee Shook Collection (S-87-258-53)

With the introduction of a comfortable, easy-to-handle bicycle in the late 1800s, America went crazy for wheels. In 1890 150,000 people had a bike; by 1894 that number had jumped to four million.

Cycling was considered a respectable activity for women because it wasn’t strenuous or competitive. Young women probably enjoyed cycling even more than their parents suspected because it brought them a newfound sense of freedom. Not only could girls travel from home on their own, but by the mid-1890s bloomers and divided skirts, garments which were once frowned upon, were a necessary fashion for female cyclists.

The bicycle’s popularity lost ground when the automobile came on the scene in the United States. By the early 1900s, bikes were considered children’s toys.

Soap box derby, Fayetteville, July 1940. Northwest Arkansas Times photographer. Washington County Historical Society Collection (P-2525C)

Kingston School seesaw, Kingston, circa 1925. Flossie Smith Collection (S-98-88-656)

At the turn of the 20th century, social reformers promoted the building of playgrounds and parks as prime places for recreation. The playground movement was a way to give children, especially those in cities, a structured and supervised place to learn play skills. At home, parents were encouraged to build sandboxes.

The jungle gym was born in Winnetka, Illinois, in 1920 when a mathematician’s son remembered a three-dimensional framework (used for teaching math concepts) on which he played as a child. Hearing the tale, the school’s headmaster thought such a structure would be perfect for children, so a mock-up was made out of iron pipe. The jungle gym was a hit!

Swings at Murphy Park, Springdale, Arkansas, August 1961. Howard Clark, photographer. Caroline Price Clark Collection (S-2001-82-232)

Unidentified women with their snowman, Northwest Arkansas, 1930s. Washington County History Book Collection (S-90-32-202)

The great outdoors have always provided wonderful opportunities for people to play, whether by having a snowball fight, jumping into a pile of autumn leaves, or splashing around in a river.

As automobiles became more affordable in the early 20th century, families explored the countryside. Camping was a popular activity which allowed city dwellers a chance to reconnect with their pioneer roots by “roughing it.”

Unidentified girl at a hula hoop contest, Springdale, October 1958. Howard Clark, photographer. Caroline Price Clark Collection (S-2001-82-23)

Every now and then a toy becomes a fad. This happened with bicycles in the 1890s and Cabbage Patch Kids® in the 1980s. During the late 1950s, the hula hoop captured the world’s attention.

Twirling a hoop around one’s waist wasn’t a new idea, but a small toy company called Wham-O® used colorful plastic to make their product fun and exciting. In 1958 the company heavily promoted the hula hoop on California playgrounds, sparking a fad that saw 100 million hoops sold in the first year.

Skateboarders on the University of Arkansas campus, Fayetteville, January 1990. Northwest Arkansas Times Collection (NWAT Box 52, P-23)

Skateboarding began in the 1950s when Californian surfers took to the streets on roller skate wheels attached to planks of wood. Skateboards allowed the rider to travel around town in a fun, but relatively sedate manner.

Public skate parks were introduced in the 1970s; in the 1980s kids built elaborate ramps at home to practice revolutionary tricks like the “ollie,” where both they and their board would pop into the air. Skate-boarders moved back to the street in the 1990s where they practiced tricks using whatever was at hand, such as curbs, railings, and benches.

Today skateboarding both influences and is influenced by music, language, fashion, and youth culture.

Hazel, Henry, and Lilian Kirby, Boone County, 1913. Boone County Library Collection (S-87-58-23)

Dressing up is appealing to young and old alike. Playing cowboys and Indians was a favorite pastime for many a youngster, who wasn’t concerned about stereotypes. Wearing costumes for Halloween and school plays was another way to have fun.

At home and in community halls, adults dressed up for theatricals, charades, and parties. “Mock weddings” were popular among single-gender groups. Members of an all-women’s literary society or a male fraternity would dress in wedding finery and portray both male and female roles.

Participants of a mock wedding at the Ozark Theater, Berryville, about 1936. Macy, photographer. Carroll County Heritage Center Collection (S-84-211-136)

Hugh Jett and Tillman McKenzie playing house, Brentwood, December 1913. Mrs. William B. Poe Collection (S-91-84-37)

Children have long been able to create worlds with their imagination. Buy a young child a fancy toy, and often the box it came in holds more long-term appeal than the toy itself.

By the 1900s researchers recognized childhood as a distinct phase in life, one which required a new way of interacting with children. Many theories were developed on how best to raise and educate children and schools were created based on these ideas.

After World War I, the growing field of child psychology influenced the way children played. Certain kinds of toys and play behavior were suggested for particular ages. Play was appreciated for the enjoyment it gave to children and its ability to help them learn about themselves and what they were capable of. Parents were also encouraged to involve themselves in their youngster’s play, advice that continues to be given today. In recent years child psychologists have advocated imaginative play as a way for kids to relax and have time away from stressful, competitive, goal-oriented activities.

Unidentified girl “washing dishes,” Springdale, 1957. Howard Clark, photographer. Caroline Price Clark Collection (S-2001-82-324)

Upper Wharton School students playing “London Bridge is Falling Down,” southeast of Huntsville, circa 1943. Vernon Williams Collection (S-96-1-161)

Many games that children play today have old roots. “London Bridge” has been around since the Middle Ages while “Blind Man’s Bluff” (a corruption of “buff,” a small push) dates back to Tudor times in the 14th and 15th centuries. Hopscotch began in Britain centuries ago as a training exercise for Roman soldiers.

The stories behind some games have been embroidered through the years. “Ring Around the Rosie” is an old rhyme that took on new meaning in the 1960s, when a researcher decided that its verses referred to the Bubonic Plague of the mid 1300s. Trouble is, there isn’t any evidence of the rhyme existing before the 1880s.

Northwest Arkansas Girl Scouts play tinikling, a game based on a folk dance from the Philippines, Bull Shoals State Park, Mountain Home, 1966. NOARK Girl Scout Council Collection (S-97-2-769)

A ball-toss game at the Tontitown picnic, circa 1910. Gloria Mae Maestri Sallis Collection (S-2006-150-11)

Informal, community-based fun has a long tradition in the Ozarks. Churches held dinners-on-the-ground (picnics), singing schools taught people to sing using shape notes (a simple form of musical notation), and play parties were a chance for youngsters to square dance without music, so as not to offend church leaders. In all of these activities, folks had a chance to get together as a group to strengthen community and social bonds and meet eligible partners.

The first picnic in the Italian community of Tontitown was in 1898. It was an event where the new settlers could socialize, have fun, and give thanks for their blessings. The tradition continues today. The Tontitown Grape Festival draws thousands of folks who enjoy a big meal of pasta and fried chicken, amusement rides, bingo, performances, and the Queen Concordia pageant.

Men’s Recreation Club, Rogers, September 1956. From left: Lloyd Thomas, Bob Keegin, C. F. Shawley (with pipe), and Mr. Detloff. Howard Clark, photographer. Caroline Price Clark Collection (S-2001-82-406)

For most of the 19th century, adults believed that games should be moral and educational. By the late 1800s, this attitude shifted and games were often played purely for fun. Although some religious denominations disapproved of card playing, families were encouraged to play card and board games at home in the belief that the family that played together would stay together.

The first reference to playing cards in western culture dates back to 1377, but it is believed that cards go back even earlier, originating in Asia. Card games have gone in and out of fashion over the years. Contract bridge was popular in the 1920s and 1930s and poker is now a televised sport.

Pinball players and videogamers at Hog Heaven, Springdale, December 30, 1982. Springdale News Collection (SMN 12-30-1982)

Changing technology has always had an effect on toys and games. Pinball began in the mid 1800s as bagatelle, in which a small stick was used to shoot a ball through raised pins into holes. Pinball’s popularity grew as the game became coin-operated and challenging flippers and plungers were added.

About the time that pinball was reaching its peak, a new game was on the horizon. Scientists used giant mainframe computers to develop games in the 1950s. Ralph Baer went one step further and demonstrated the first playable video games in 1966. Six years later “Pong,” a video tennis game, was in arcades and the “Odyssey” gaming system allowed folks to play such games as basketball and ping-pong at home.

Today video games are usually played at home or on handheld devices. Online gaming offers elaborate—and some would say addictive—multiplayer competitions. Some gamers get ahead by buying “virtual” goods with real money!

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